as Governor of
Bengal (1204-1206 CE). Struck in the name of
Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad bin Sam with legends in
Sanskrit, dated Samvat 1262 (1204 CE). (1290–1296) Medieval Muslim scholars, including 9th-10th century geographers
Ibn Khordadbeh and
Istakhri, narrated that the Khalaj were one of the earliest
Turkic tribes to have crossed the
Amu Darya from
Central Asia and settled in parts of present-day Afghanistan, especially in the
Ghazni,
Qalati Ghilji (also known as Qalati Khalji), and
Zabulistan regions. According to Istakhri, "The Khalaj are a tribe of Turks who in ancient times came to the land between
al-Hind and
Sijistān, behind al-Ghūr". The mid-10th-century book ''
Hudud al-'Alam'' described the Khalaj as
sheep-grazing nomads in Ghazni and the surrounding districts, who had a habit of
wandering through seasonal
pastures. Today, the Khalaj mainly live a semi-nomadic lifestyle in
Iran and follow the
Qizilbash branch of
Shia Islam. 11th-century book
Tarikh Yamini, written by al-Utbi, stated that when the
Ghaznavid Emir
Sabuktigin defeated the
Hindu Shahi ruler
Jayapala in 988, the Khalaj and Pashtuns (Afghans) between
Laghman and
Peshawar, the territory he conquered, surrendered and agreed to serve him. Al-Utbi further stated that Khalaj and Pashtun tribesmen were recruited in significant numbers by the Ghaznavid Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni (999–1030) to take part in his military conquests, including his expedition to
Tokharistan. The Khalaj later revolted against Mahmud's son Sultan
Mas'ud I of Ghazni (1030–1040), who sent a
punitive expedition to obtain their submission. In 1197,
Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, a Khalaj general from
Garmsir,
Helmand in the army of the
Ghurid Sultan
Muhammad of Ghor, captured
Bihar in
India, and then became the
ruler of Bengal, beginning the
Khalji dynasty of Bengal (1204-1227). During the time of the
Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia, many Khalaj and
Turkmens gathered in
Peshawar and joined the army of Saif al-Din Ighraq, who was likely a Khalaj himself. This army defeated the petty king of Ghazni, Radhi al-Mulk. The last
Khwarazmian ruler,
Jalal al-Din Mangburni, was forced by the Mongols to flee towards the
Hindu Kush. Ighraq's army, as well as many other Khalaj and other tribesmen, joined the Khwarazmian force of Jalal al-Din and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mongols at the 1221
Battle of Parwan. However, after the victory, the Khalaj,
Turkmens, and Ghoris in the army quarreled with the Khwarazmians over the booty, and finally left, soon after which Jalal al-Din was defeated by
Genghis Khan at the
Battle of the Indus and forced to flee to India. Ighraq returned to Peshawar, but later Mongol detachments defeated the 20,000–30,000 strong Khalaj, Turkmen, and Ghori tribesmen who had abandoned Jalal al-Din. Some of these tribesmen escaped to
Multan and were recruited into the army of the
Delhi Sultanate.
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296), who belonged to the Khalaj tribe from Qalati Khalji, founded the
Khalji dynasty, which replaced the
Mamluks and became the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. 13th-century
Tarikh-i Jahangushay, written by historian
Ata-Malik Juvayni, narrated that a levy comprising the "Khalaj of Ghazni" and Pashtuns were mobilized by the Mongols to take part in a punitive expedition sent to
Merv in present-day
Turkmenistan. Many of the Khalaj of the Ghazni and Qalati Ghilji region became
Pashtunized and assimilated into the local
Pashto-speaking population and they likely formed the core of the Pashtun
Ghilji tribe. They intermarried with the local Pashtuns and adopted their manners, culture, customs, and practices, also bringing their customs and culture to India where they established the
Khalji dynasty of Bengal (1204–1227) and the
Khalji dynasty of Delhi (1290–1320). Minorsky noted: "In fact, there is absolutely nothing astonishing in a tribe of nomad habits changing its language. This happened with the
Mongols who settled among Turks and probably with some
Turkomans living among
Kurds." Just before the Mongol invasion, Najib Bakran's geography
Jahān Nāma (c. 1200-1220) described the transformation that the Khalaj tribe was going through: == Notable people ==