Initial campaigns The Ghurid brothers ruled as a
dyarchy with the senior partner, Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad, engaged in a protracted duel with the
Khwarazmians from his capital
Firuzkuh situated in west-central
Afghanistan, while Muhammad expanded the Ghurid domains eastwards into the Indian plains from his capital at Ghazni. The expeditions into the Indian plains and the plunder extracted from the sacking of lucrative
Hindu temples in the
Gangetic Plain, gave Muhammad access to a vast amount of treasure that was collected in Ghazni which, according to the chronicler
Juzjani based on the authority of Muhammad's comptroller, included 60,000 kg (1500
mann) of jewels. During the course of his early invasions, Muhammad avoided
Punjab and instead focused on lands bordering the middle and lower course of the
Indus. Therefore, to outflank the Ghaznavids in Punjab and to open up an alternative route to
Northern India, Muhammad turned south towards
Anhilwara in present-day
Gujarat. Before entering
Anhilwara, he laid siege to the fort of
Nadol (around
Marwar) and captured it from the
Naddula Chahamana ruler
Kelhanadeva after a short siege. He sacked the
Shiva temple in
Kiradu. After marching through the dry
Thar Desert south of
Marwar, the Ghurid army were exhausted by the time they reached
Mount Abu where they were routed
in the mountainous pass of Gadararaghatta by the
Solanki ruler
Mularaja II. The Solanki ruler was aided by other Rajput chiefs, primarily
Kelhanadeva (who had earlier been defeated by at
Nadol by Muhammad), the
Jalor Chahamana ruler
Kirtipala, and the
Arbuda Paramara ruler Dharavarsha. The Ghurid army suffered heavy casualties during the battle, and also in the retreat back across the desert to Ghazni. The defeat forced Muhammad to opt for the northern routes. He therefore concentrated on creating a suitable base in Punjab and northwest for further incursions into
northern India.
Conquest of Punjab Muhammad's
expeditions in the Indian subcontinent started against the
Qarmatians (
sevener branch of Isma'ilis) who regained a foothold in
Multan, soon after the death of
Mahmud of Ghazni who installed a
Sunni governor there. Muhammad defeated the Qarmatian ruler Khafif in 1175 and annexed Multan. The defeat turned to be a death blow for the Qarmatian power in Multan, with the Qarmatians never regaining their influence in the region. In 1179, Muhammad conquered
Peshawar which at that time was possibly ruled by the Ghaznavids. The conquest of
Uch in the southern Punjab followed soon after and according to
Firishta, Muhammed Ghuri had sent a private letter to the wife of the
Bhatti ruler for marriage in return for removing her husband, as he had foreseen the capture of the fort as being difficult. The wife replied stating she would give her daughter for marriage instead due to her age and proceeded to assassinate her husband, opening the gates of the
Uch fort to the
Ghorids. It was further noted that after this event
Muhammed Ghuri had married the Bhatti princess however he had sent her mother to Ghazni to avoid entrusting her with the region in which she had soon after died of 'sorrow and disappointment', likewise the princess two years onwards had died from grief. Uch was placed under Malik Nasiurdin Aitam until his death in the Battle of Andkhud in 1204. Afterwards, it was placed under the control of Nasiruddin Qabacha. After the conquest of the Southern Punjab,
Muhammed Ghuri began his final assaults on the remaining
Ghaznavid strongholds, under the last ruler
Khusrau Malik in 1181 CE. During this period the
Khokhar tribe of
Punjab were subject to the rulers of
Jammu, however Khusrau Malik had prompted them to halt paying tax in return for his support. An attempt to besiege the fort of
Sialkot unsuccessfully followed soon after this alliance was formed in retaliation to a failed besiegement of
Lahore by
Muhammed Ghuri. In 1182, Muhammad followed a southerly arc to the port city of
Debal on the
Arabian Sea coast of
Sindh, subjugating the
Soomras. In Muhammed Ghuris second siege of Lahore
Khusrau Malik was successfully taken prisoner and ended the
Ghaznavids rule in 1186 CE. He imprisoned Khusrau Malik in the fort of
Gharchistan, breaching his own agreement of safe conduct in return for his surrender. Khusrau Malik was sent to
Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad in
Firuzkuh where in c. 1192 he and all his kin were executed. After uprooting the Ghaznavids, Muhammad now established his sway over the strategic
Indus Basin including most of the Punjab. He appointed Mulla Sirajuddin who had been a high-ranking
Qāḍi in his father court, as the head of judicature department in the newly conquered Ghaznavid territories along with being in charge of Multan. His son
Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani (born 1193) later composed the
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri in 1260 which is regarded as a monumental work from the medieval period about the
Ghurid dynasty and the
Delhi Sultanate.
First Battle of Tarain In 1190, after consolidating in
Sindh and western Punjab, the Ghurid generals began to raid the eastern Punjab region and captured the fortress of
Bathinda in present-day
Punjab state on the northwestern frontier of
Prithviraj Chauhan's kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din of
Tulak as governor of the fortress with 1200 horsemen, Muhammad received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Rai, were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of
Tarain, 24 km from
Thanesar in present-day
Haryana. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers to which Prithviraj responded by counter-attacking from three sides and thus dominating the battle. Muhammad wounded Govind Rai in personal combat and in the process was himself wounded, whereupon his army retreated and Prithvīrāj's army was deemed victorious. According to Juzjani, the wounded Muhammad was carried away from the battleground by a Khalji horsemen. A quite different account from Za'inul Masir claimed that after being wounded in combat with Govindraja, Muhammad lost consciousness and his forces withdrew in disarray after assuming him to be dead. Later some of his soldiers arrived in the night and searched for his body at the battle site. Despite being badly wounded, Muhammad recognised his soldiers, who rejoiced after finding him alive and took him from the battlefield in a litter to Ghazni. However, the version from Za'inul Masir is not corroborated by any other contemporary and later writers, which makes the authenticity of his version of events dubious and the version put forward by Juzjani more credible. The Ghurid garrison of Tabarhind under Ziauddin held out for thirteen months before capitulating. The Rajputs could not make quick progress during their siege due to absence of
siege engines, which enabled Muhammad to use this time to raise a formidable army.
Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 After the defeat in Tarain, Muhammad meted out severe punishments to the
Ghurid,
Khalji and
Afghan "emirs" who fled during the battle. Bags filled with grain were tied around their necks and they were then paraded through Ghazni. Those who refused were beheaded. The late medieval historian
Ferishta further states that based on the testimony of folklore in Ghazni, Muhammad vowed not to visit his royal harem and not to heal his wounds sustained in the battle until he avenged the humiliation of his defeat.
Husain Kharmil, a prominent Iranian general of the Ghurids, was called from Ghazni with a large contingent along with other seasoned warlords such as Mukalba, Kharbak and Illah. Muhammad made necessary arrangements to counter the elephant phalanx of the Rajput forces by having them attack mock elephants made of mud and wood. The near contemporary chroniclers Juzjani and
Isami stated that Muhammad brought 120,000-130,000 fully armoured men to the battle in 1192. Ferishta placed the strength of Rajput army in the decisive battle at 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry (most likely a gross exaggeration).
Prithviraj Chauhan had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Instead of engaging in direct confrontation as they did in the initial Battle of Tarain, the Ghurids adopted a strategy of deceit and diplomacy to overcome the
Rajputs, as documented in Taj-ul Ma'asir by
Hasan Nizami. Upon Muhammad's arrival on the battlefield, Prithviraj, the Rajput leader, purportedly sent a formal message suggesting a peaceful resolution, stating, "It would be wise for you to return to your homeland, and we have no intention of pursuing you." In response, Muhammad replied that he had come to face challenges on the directive of his ruling sibling and proposed the dispatch of an envoy to negotiate peace. According to accounts from Hasan Nizami, Muhammad Ufi, and Firishta, it became evident that Muhammad was being deceptive, but Prithviraj, considering it a genuine truce, accepted the proposal. Early the following day, the Ghurids attacked the Rajput army. The assault occurred before sunrise, catching the Chahamana army off guard as they had spent the night not expecting an attack. Although they were able to quickly move into their formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack. Juzjani attributed the success of the Ghurid army to the 10,000 elite mounted archers who Muhammad stationed at a small distance from the elephant phalanx of the Rajput forces and which ultimately scattered the "infidel host". Prithviraj was captured during the battle on the bank of river Saraswati (present-day
Sirsa) and summarily executed. After the victory, Muhammad took over much of the Chahamana kingdom and sacked their capital
Ajmer during which several Hindu temples were desecrated by the Ghurids in Ajmer. Muhammad captured and placed strong garrisons at the strategic military stations of
Sirsa,
Hansi,
Samana and
Kohram. Muhammad later installed Prithviraja's minor son
Govindaraja IV as his
puppet ruler with the condition that he received heavy tribute. However, after a revolt by his uncle
Hariraja, Govindraja was forced to move towards
Ranthambore, where he established a new dynasty of the Chahamanas. Hariraja, briefly dislodged the Ghurid garrison from
Ajmer, but was later defeated by Qutb ud-Din Aibak. Subsequently, Hariraja immolated himself on a funeral pyre and the Ghurids reoccupied Ajmer and placed it under a Muslim governor.
Delhi was also captured by Muhammad and Qutb al-Din Aibak in 1193, although in continuation with the policy adopted earlier in
Ajmer, a puppet Rajput scion was installed in Delhi in return for tribute (possibly the son of Govindraja who died in
Tarain). However, he was soon deposed on the account of treason. Muhammad continued to carry out raids across the
north Indian plain. However, he later became preoccupied with the Ghurid expansion in
Transoxiana against the
Khwarezmian Empire as his brother Ghiyath al-Din began to have health problems. According to
Fakhr-i Mudabbir and
Minhaj-i Siraj Juzjani, Muhammad appointed Aibak as his administrator of the Ghurid domains in
North India after the
Second Battle of Tarain. His lieutenants, Qutb ud-Din Aibak,
Bahauddin Tughril,
Bakhtiyar Khalji and
Yildiz, raided the local kingdoms and expanded his empire in the
Indian subcontinent up to
north-western parts of Bengal in east, Ajmer and
Ranthambore (
Rajasthan) in the north and the borders of
Ujjain in the south.
Further campaigns coinage of
Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji (1204–1206). Struck in the name of Mu'izz al-Din Muhammad, dated
Samvat 1262 (1204).
Obverse: Horseman with
Nagari legend around:
samvat 1262 bhadrapada "August, year 1262".
Reverse: Nagari legend:
srīma ha/ mīra mahama /da sāmaḥ "Lord Emir Mohammed [ibn] Sam". After Aibak consolidated the Ghurid rule in and around the
Delhi doab, Muhammad returned to India to further expand Ghurid rule down the
Ganges Valley. Accordingly, in 1194, he crossed the
Jamuna River with an army of 50,000 horsemen where he confronted the forces of the
Rajput Gahadavala king
Jayachandra in the
Battle of Chandawar. The Ghurid army was victorious, Jayachandra was killed in the battle, and much of his army was slaughtered. Following the battle, the Ghurids took the fort at Asni, where they plundered the royal treasure of the Gahadavalas, and went on to take the pilgrimage city of
Varanasi, which was looted and a large number of its temples destroyed. The Gahadavala capital
Kanauj was annexed in 1198. During this campaign, the Buddhist city of
Sarnath was also sacked.
Conquest of Bayana Muhammad returned to the Indian frontier again around 1196 to consolidate his hold in what is present-day
Rajasthan. The territory of Bayana at the time was under the control of a sect of
Jadaun Rajputs. Muhammad, along with
Qutb ud-Din Aibak, advanced and besieged Thankar whose ruler Kumarpal was defeated. Muhammad placed the fort under his senior slave
Bahauddin Tughril, who later established Sultankot and used it as his stronghold. After the conquest of Thankar, Bahaurddin Turghil reduced the fort of
Gwalior, whose
Parihar chief Sallakhanapala surrendered after a long siege and accepted the Ghurid suzerainty. After the assassination of Muhammad, Tughril styled himself as the
Sultan in
Bayana. In 1197, Qutb ud-Din Aibak invaded
Gujarat and
defeated Bhima II in
Sirohi after a sudden attack and afterwards sacked his capital
Anhilwara. Thus, Aibak avenged the rout of Muhammad at the same place in
1178. ==Struggle in Central Asia==