Settlement and subsequent conflicts The area of Khor Al Adaid was a point of friction between Qatar and polities in what is now Saudi Arabia and the
United Arab Emirates (UAE). Khor Al Adaid had served as a refuge for pirates from the
Emirate of Abu Dhabi (now
part of the UAE) during the 19th century. Members of the
Bani Yas tribe migrated and settled in the area on three separate occasions; 1835, 1849 and 1869. According to a historical overview of Khor Al Adaid written by the British government in India, "in 1836, Al-Kubaisat, a section of the Bani-Yas, under Sheikh Khadim-bin-Nahman, being desirous of avoiding the consequences of certain recent piracies, seceded from Abu Dhabi and established themselves at Odeid. [...] In 1849, there was a fresh secession, followed by a second compulsory return; at length, in 1869, a party under Sheikh Buttye-bin-Khadim again settled at Odeid, and repudiated their allegiance to the parent State." Among the settlers in 1835 was the pirate
Jasim bin Jabir, who was joined there by his crew. The residents of eastern Qatar abetted the pirates of Khor Al Adaid in their pillaging of vessels off the coast of Abu Dhabi, resulting in a British naval force being sent to the settlement in 1836 to accost the piratical acts. The British ordered the chiefs of major Qatari towns to immediately desist from sending supplies to the pirates and instructed them to seize the pirate's boats. Additionally, the British naval force set fire to one of the pirate's vessels. As a result, Jassim bin Jabir relocated to
Doha in September 1836. After receiving approval from the British in May 1837, the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi, wishing to punish the seceders, sent his troops to sack the settlement at Khor Al Adaid; 50 of its inhabitants were killed and its houses and fortifications were dismantled during the event. The British claimed that "the leniency and moderation with which he [the Sheikh] used his victory induced the seceders to return to Abu Dhabi". In 1869, the Bani Yas tribe once again seceded from Abu Dhabi to resettle in Khor Al Adaid under Sheikh Buttye-bin-Khadim. According to a British memorandum written in 1879 by
Adolphus Warburton Moore, "in August 1873 they [the Ottomans] were reported by the Acting Resident in the Persian Gulf to have established an influence over all the Guttur coast as far as the Odeid boundaries". For his part, Buttye-bin-Khadim, sheikh of the Bani Yas at Khor Al Adaid, refused to submit to Abu Dhabi, and stated that his people were in their own right at Odeid, and independent of both Qatar and the Ottomans. The territorial limits of the colony were declared to extend from Ras-al-Hala, midway to Wakrah in Qatar, continuously along the southern coast through Odeid to a point abreast of the island of
Sir Bani Yas. He further claimed the island of
Dalma and other islets within that circuit. He asserted that this territory constituted the ancient home of the Al-Kubaisat. He then admitted he had been offered the Turkish flag by Sheikh Jassim, but had refused it, saying he was under British protection. Communications between British officials reveal that rumors persisted that Sheikh Buttye-bin-Khadim flew the Ottoman flag on Fridays. These rumors were later found to be true, with future communiques confirming the occasional hoisting of the Ottoman flag in Khor Al Adaid.
Piracy incidents Shortly after the peninsula came under Ottoman control, the British government reprimanded the Ottomans on numerous occasions for failing to prevent piratical acts from being carried out off Khor Al Adaid's coast. Adolphus Warburton Moore's memo states, "During the summer of 1876 there was a marked increase of piratical acts along the Guttur coast." Select instances are given: • "In the month of August a rumour reached the Officiating Resident, to the effect that another party of the Beni Hajir had seized a boat belonging to the Oman pearl divers at Odeid." • "In the same month the Chief of Aboothabee complained that two of his boats, which had anchored in the Bay of Odeid, had been attacked from the shore, one man being wounded, and one killed." • "Again in August a section of the Beni Hajir, residing at Odeid, under the rule of Sheikh Salim bin Shafee, embarked from that port, and made an attack upon a boat belonging to Guttur, from which property to the value of $400 was plundered." The British memo also mentions the 1869 defection of the Bani Yas tribe from the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi and subsequent resettlement of Khor Al Adaid. Discussing the Sheikh's response to their defection, the memo states: In addition to hoisting the Ottoman flag (alongside the Trucial flag), it was found that the Sheikh of Khor Al Adaid had been paying an annual tribute of 40 to 50 dollars to the Ottomans through Sheikh Jassim around 1877. This absence was mainly attributed to the area's limited potable water availability.
British response to piracy The British, after conducting an investigation into these so-called piratical acts, concluded that the culprits were not the Bani Hajer, but the
Al Murrah tribe; and that the Sheikh of Khor Al Adaid had not been implicated, but that "he was too weak to prevent his ports being made use of". Colonel Prideaux, who was the acting
Persian Gulf Resident in Edward Charles Ross' absence, suggested that the British should facilitate a reconciliation between the Bani Yas in Khor Al Adaid and the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi so that the area, including its territorial waters, would fall under the umbrella of British protection. He claimed that, should this prove unsuccessful, the British government would do well to provide assistance to the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi in exercising his authority over the land, by force if necessary. He predicted that the Ottomans would not intervene. • That the acts of piracy complained of were committed by members of the Al Murrah tribe, a tribe nominally dependent on the Ottoman Government. • That the pirates proceeded on their expedition from ports belonging to the Chief of Khor Al Adaid. • That the Chief of Khor Al Adaid in no way countenanced or assisted the use of his ports as a starting place for piratical expeditions. • That the reason why the Chief of Khor Al Adaid was too weak to prevent the piracy was due to his and his follower's secession from the Bani Yas tribe inhabiting Abu Dhabi. • That the reason why the Chief of Abu Dhabi has not yet invaded Khor Al Adaid is, that he has been prevented from so doing by the British Government. Accompanying these findings were two directives issued by the British Government: • That endeavours be made to induce the Ottoman Government to take measures to restrain the piratical proceedings of the Al Murrah tribe; and • That measures be taken by the
Royal Navy to prevent the ports of Khor Al Adaid from being used as a rendezvous for pirates. The British Government also instructed their liaison to the Ottomans, the British Ambassador in Constantinople
Austen Henry Layard, to relay to the Ottoman Government the need to send forces to the weaker Sheikhs in Qatar so that they could subvert piracy in their ports, but the liaison was advised not to make any reference to Khor Al Adaid, "because it was doubtful whether the Turkish Government exercised any substantial authority over the Chief of that place, and it was inexpedient to provoke a discussion on the point." In June 1877, yet another act of piracy was committed by ships belonging to Khor Al Adaid upon sailors from
Al Wakrah, several of whom were captured. Following the incident, Colonel Prideaux wrote to Sheikh Buttye-bin-Khadim of Khor Al Adaid warning him to accept reunification with the Bani Yas of Abu Dhabi, otherwise "other steps will be taken", while also writing to Sheikh Zayed of Abu Dhabi to reassure him of British support for his efforts to preside over the settlement at Khor Al Adaid. Thus, in October 1877, Colonel Prideaux recommended sending warships to Khor Al Adaid as punishment for violating the
Perpetual Maritime Truce, unless its inhabitants submit to the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi's rule. Edward Charles Ross informed the British Government in December that attempts at reconciliation between Sheikh Zayed and Sheikh Buttye-bin-Khadim were met without success. Climatically, a massive invasion of Khor Al Adaid was launched by the Sheikh of Abu Dhabi in concert with the British in 1879. Recounting the incident, British records state that: In 1881, Sheikh Jassim once again announced to the Political Resident his intention to occupy Khor Al Adaid in order to re-inhabit it and to defend Qatar from pirates and naval invasions. After being reminded that the territory was under the protection of the British, he rescinded his plans. On 31 August 1886, it was reported that Sheikh Jassim and several of his followers departed Doha to settle Khor Al Adaid. He was warned against his plan by a British official, and the Royal Navy dispatched a vessel to prevent him from advancing. Eventually, he returned to Doha without establishing a settlement in Khor Al Adaid. In April 1889, Sheikh Jassim sent a letter to the Wali of Basra in which he reported that Sheikh Zayed was preparing to invade Qatar and pleaded for support, claiming that Sheikh's Zayed's forces numbered close to 20,000 troops while he could barely muster 4,000 troops. Although the Wali believed that Sheikh Jassim was inflating figures for his own gain, he instructed Akif Pasha,
Mutasarrıf of
Najd Sanjak, to take preventative measures in Qatar by reinforcing Khor Al Adaid with 500 men. Before the troops were dispatched, Akif Pasha was summoned to Basra in August 1888 to discuss administrative reforms in Bahrain and Qatar with the Wali. During the meeting, Akif Pasha recommended appointing a mudir to Khor Al Adaid with a salary of 750 kurushes and a
gendarmerie force. He claimed that this, along with other steps taken by the Porte, would result in the establishment of a thriving village in Khor Al Adaid which could potentially generate large amounts of tax revenue. Furthermore, he stated, such measures would help repel foreign incursions. However, the prime underlying motive behind these reforms were to reduce British influence in the Persian Gulf. After these decisions were written into a bill by the Council of Ministers, Sultan
Abdul Hamid II, having received the bill on 13 January 1890, signed it into effect on 2 February 1890.
Resettlement attempts by the Ottomans and Sheikh Jassim By 1890 news had broken about the newly commissioned project by the Ottomans to rebuild Khor Al Adaid. The British grew concerned over this as an Ottoman settlement in what they considered territory of Abu Dhabi would be exceedingly difficult to disperse through diplomatic means. In British political circles, rumors were circulating in January 1891 that the Ottomans had installed
mudirs (governors) in Khor Al Adaid and north-bound
Zubarah, and that 400 Ottoman troops were en route to garrison the towns. In February 1891, the British learnt that Sheikh Jassim, under the aegis of the Ottomans, had returned to his plans of occupying Khor Al Adaid. He reportedly asked around 40 members of the Kubaisat tribe living in Al Wakrah to settle in Khor Al Adaid in an attempt to rebuild the village. The tribe replied that they were willing to adhere to this proposal, provided that one of Jassim's sons serves as their sheikh, as most of the tribe members refused to live under an Ottoman governor. At the same time, Sheikh Jassim was under pressure by the Ottomans to agree to their proposals to install administrative officials at Khor Al Adaid and Zubarah and to establish a customs house at
Al Bidda. While he was not overtly concerned about the first proposal as he had not yet found willing participants to resettle these two places, he vehemently opposed the establishment of an Ottoman customs house in Qatar. All prospects of resettling Khor Al Adaid were abandoned when Sheikh Jassim, unsatisfied with the increasing usurpation of control by the Ottomans, resigned as kaymakam of Qatar in August 1892. This culminated in the
Battle of Al Wajbah in March 1893 in which Sheikh Jassim's forces defeated the Ottomans troops stationed in Doha, resulting in a downsizing of Ottoman presence in the peninsula.
Ottoman administrative reforms More than thirty years after the Ottomans established a protectorate in the Qatari Peninsula, they designated four administrative districts (
nehiye) on the peninsula in December 1902, with Khor Al Adaid (simply referred to as
Adide by the Porte) being among them. Ottoman sources allege that this was in response to British disturbance of the nomadic tribespeople in Qatar by installing numerous poles in the peninsula, including five in Zubarah and Khor Al Adaid. The British officially protested and refused to recognize Ottoman jurisdiction over the peninsula, especially over Khor Al Adaid. They demanded that the Ottomans not station administrative officials in these districts, to which the Ottomans promised they would comply. However, by early 1903, the Ottomans had already appointed the first mudir – Yusuf Effendi in
Al Wakrah. Amidst heavy pressure from the British to rescind their assignment of government officials in Qatar, the Porte abolished all its mudir posts on the peninsula in 1904. A British government official deemed this move "a determination to assert and extend Ottoman sovereignty over the neighbourhood of El Katr" and was instructed to hand in a written protest pointing out that "El Odeid is in the territory of one of the Trucial Chiefs who are under the protection of His Majesty’s Government”. However, when was sent to inspect Khor Al Adaid later that year, it found no evidence of an Ottoman mudir.
Later Ottoman period A brief description of Khor Al Adaid is given in 1910 by W. Graham Greene:
J. G. Lorimer's comprehensive
Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, published in 1908 and 1915 as a handbook for British political agents, offers a more complete account of Khor Al Adaid:
Later 20th century Throughout the 20th century, Khor Al Adaid was the focus of border disputes between Qatar,
Saudi Arabia and the UAE. The UAE Emirate of Abu Dhabi desired to have a border with Qatar here, but it was agreed in 1974 that Khor Al Adaid should border Saudi Arabia instead.
21st century In November 2021,
Saudi Arabia and
Qatar demarcated the
Qatar–Saudi Arabia border and Qatar was given access to the entirety of Khor Al Adaid by moving the border further south. ==Geography==