Arian controversy

Beginnings The early history of the controversy must be pieced together from about 35 documents found in various sources. Christians in the first two decades of the fourth century had to concern themselves first of all with survival, in the face of what was perhaps the only systematic attempt ever, on the part of the Roman government, to destroy the Christian Church. Roman persecution of Christians was brought to an end by Galerius’ Edict of Toleration in 311, followed by Constantine’s Edict of Milan in 313. The 4th-century Controversy continued the controversies of the previous centuries. Following Justin Martyr in the second century, Logos-theology dominated, but was opposed by Monarchianism. In the 3rd century, authors like Sabellius, Tertullian, and Origen made significant but conflicting contributions to the debate over the nature of Christ. Around the year 260, some Sabellians in Libya used the term homoousios (consubstantial) to say that the Father and Son are one substance. In a letter, the bishop of Alexandria opposed them and denied the term. The Sabellians appealed to the bishop of Rome. Rome reprimanded Alexandria in a letter, after which Alexandria accepted the term, but as meaning that the Father and Son are two Beings of similar substance, rather than one substance. The Trinitarian historian Socrates of Constantinople reports that Arius first became controversial under the bishop Alexander of Alexandria, when Arius formulated the following syllogism:"If the Father begat the Son, he that was begotten had a beginning of existence: hence it is that there was when the Son was not. It follows then of necessity that he had his existence from the non-existence".The dispute between Arius and Alexander was a continuation of a dispute between two preexisting theological traditions. Arius defended what he regarded as the Alexandrian tradition. Bishop Alexander of Alexandria was criticised for his slow reaction against Arius. Like his predecessor, Dionysius, he has been charged with vacillation. According to Eusebius's work, The Life of Constantine, the controversy had spread from Alexandria into almost all the African regions, and was considered a disturbance of the public order by the Roman Empire. Constantine the Great (Constantine I) sent two letters to Arius and Bishop Alexander, asking the religious leaders to stop the controversy. The ongoing controversy led to Constantine's oversight of the First Council of Nicaea. ==First Council of Nicaea (325)==

, with Arius depicted beneath the feet of emperor Constantine the Great and the bishops Arianism would not be contained within the Alexandrian diocese. By the time Bishop Alexander finally acted against his presbyter, Arius's doctrine had spread far beyond his own see; it had become a topic of discussion—and disturbance—for the entire Church. The Church was now a powerful force in the Roman world, with Constantine I having legalized it in 313 through the Edict of Milan. "Constantine desired that the church should contribute to the social and moral strength of the empire, religious dissension was a menace to the public welfare." Consequently, the emperor had taken a personal interest in several ecumenical issues, including the Donatist controversy in 316. He also wanted to bring an end to the Arian dispute. To this end, the emperor sent bishop Hosius of Corduba to investigate and, if possible, resolve the controversy. Hosius was armed with an open letter from the Emperor: "Wherefore let each one of you, showing consideration for the other, listen to the impartial exhortation of your fellow-servant." As the debate continued to rage despite Hosius' efforts, Constantine in AD 325 took an unprecedented step: he called an ecumenical council at Nicaea composed of church prelates from all parts of the empire to resolve this issue, possibly at Hosius' recommendation. It is traditionally said that 318 bishops came to Nicaea to attend the council, though others suggest figures from 250-300. The vast majority of those bishops were from the East. Italy, Spain, Gaul, North Africa, Persia, and Scythia each sent one bishop. Pope Sylvester I, himself too aged to attend, sent two priests as his delegates. Arius himself attended the council as well as the young deacon Athanasius, who attended as an assistant to Alexander of Alexandria The council was presided over by the emperor himself, who participated in and even led some of its discussions. Those who upheld the notion that Christ was co-eternal and con-substantial with the Father were led by Alexander. Those who instead insisted that the Son of God came after God the Father in time and substance, were led by Arius the presbyter. For about two months, the two sides argued and debated, with each appealing to Scripture to justify their respective positions. Arius maintained that the Son of God was a Creature, made from nothing; and that he was God's First Production, before all ages. And he argued that everything else was created through the Son. Thus, said Arius, only the Son was directly created and begotten of God; furthermore, there was a time that He had no existence. He was capable of His own free will, said Arius, and thus "were He in the truest sense a son, He must have come after the Father, therefore the time obviously was when He was not, and hence He was a finite being." According to some accounts in the hagiography of Saint Nicholas, debate at the council became so heated that at one point, he slapped Arius in the face. The majority of the bishops at the council ultimately agreed upon a creed, known thereafter as the Nicene Creed formulated at the first council of Nicaea. It included the word homoousios, meaning "consubstantial", or "same in essence", which was incompatible with Arius' beliefs. On June 19, 325, council and emperor issued a circular to the churches in and around Alexandria: Arius and two of his unyielding partisans (Theonas and Secundus) Ariminum, Seleucia, and Constantinople (358–360) In 358, the emperor Constantius II requested two councils, one of the western bishops at Ariminum (now Rimini in Northern Italy) and one of the eastern bishops at Nicomedia. In 359, the western council met at Ariminum. Ursacius of Singidunum and Valens of Mursa, following the new creed drafted at Sirmium (359), proposed that, "according to the scriptures," the Son was "like the Father." This is known as the Homoian view which held that the Bible does not reveal whether the Son is of the same substance as the Father and we, therefore, should not speculate about such things. This view is in opposition to the "of the same substance" (Homoousios) view of the Nicene Creed. The council, including some supporters of the older creed, accepted this proposal. An earthquake struck Nicomedia, and in 359 the eastern council met at Seleucia Isauria instead. The council was bitterly divided and procedurally irregular, and the two parties met separately and reached opposing decisions. Following the Homoian view, Acacius of Caesarea declared that the Son was "like the Father". But Basil of Ancyra and his party, following a (Homoiousian) Creed of Antioch from 341, declared that the Son was of "similar substance" to the Father. The majority at Seleucia accepted the "similar substance" view and deposed the opposing party. Constantius did not accept this outcome and requested a third council, at Constantinople (359), of both the eastern and western bishops, to resolve the split at Seleucia. Acacius and Basil of Ancyra, respectively, again proposed the "like the Father" and "similar substance" views, as were explained at Seleucia. However, Maris of Chalcedon, Eudoxius of Antioch, and the deacons Aëtius of Antioch and Eunomius of Cyzicus proposed a third view which was similar to Arius' teachings, namely that the Son was of "a dissimilar substance" from the Father. The Heteroousians ("dissimilar substance") won the victory over the other two views in an initial debate. However, Constantius was not willing to accept this outcome either. He intervened and banished Aëtius; At the same time, Acacius also deposed and banished the Anomoean deacon Aëtius. According to Philostorgius, pagans killed George of Laodicea, bishop of Alexandria, allowing Athanasius to reclaim the 'see', or ecclesiastical jurisdiction. ==Sides==

Homoousian The Homoousians taught that the Son is of the same substance as the Father, i.e. both uncreated. The Sabellian form had been condemned as heresy in the 3rd century by Pope Calixtus. The use of the term Homoousios was also condemned by a council in Antioch. Nicene theology evolved over the 4th century. Original Nicene theology focused on the unity of God. Only during the 360s did some Nicenes begin to distinguish what in God is one from what is three. Homoousios would be declared orthodox at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople in 381, and has become the basis of most of modern trinitarianism. • Alexander, bishop of Alexandria (313-326). • Hosius, bishop of Cordoba (?-359). • Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea (c. 313-339). • Eustathius, (possibly Sabellian) bishop of Antioch (c. 325-330). • Cyrus, (possibly Sabellian) bishop of Beroe. • Paul, bishop of Constantinople (336-351, later rival of Eusebius of Nicomedia and then Macedonius I of Constantinople). • Julius, bishop of Rome (337-352). • Asclepas, bishop of Gaza. • Lucius, bishop of Adrianople (?-351). • Maximus, bishop of Jerusalem (333-350). • Paulinus, bishop of Treves, who supported Athanasius of Alexandria at Milan. • Dionysius, bishop of Alba, who supported Athanasius of Alexandria at Milan. • Gregory of Nazianzus • Gregory of Elvira • Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari. • Hilary, bishop of Poitiers (c. 353-367). • Servatius, bishop of Tongeren. Marcellus of Ancyra and Photinus of Sirmium According to the historian Socrates of Constantinople, in the 4th century, Marcellus of Ancyra and Photinus taught "that Christ was a mere man." Their opponents associated their teachings with those of Sabellius and Paul of Samosata in the 3rd century, which had been widely rejected before the controversy. Another prominent 'Sabellian' in the 4th century was Eustathius. • Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra (?-336 and c. 343-c. 374) and critic of Asterius. • Photinus, bishop of Sirmium (?-351) and in exile (351-376); according to Socrates of Constantinople and Sozomen, Photinus was a follower of Marcellus. • In 336, a church trial at Constantinople deposed Marcellus and condemned his doctrines. • Pope Julius I supported Marcellus and called for his restoration. • Under pressure from his co-Emperor Constans, Constantius II initially backed the decision of Sardica, but after Constans' death, reversed course. • In 351, a church trial at the Second Council of Sirmium deposed Photinus and condemned his teachings. • The Macrostich condemned the teachings of Marcellus and Photinus. Homoiousian The Homoiousian school taught that the Son is of a similar substance to the Father but not the same. Basil of Caesarea, the first of the three Cappadocian Fathers, began his career as a Homoiousian. • Basil of Ancyra, bishop of Ancyra (336-360). • Macedonius, (Macedonian) bishop of Constantinople (342-346 and 351-360). • George of Laodicea, bishop of Alexandria (356-361, rival of Athanasius of Alexandria). • Eudoxius, bishop of Germanicia (?-358), Antioch (358-359), and Constantinople (360-370), who supported the Macrostich. • Martyrius, who supported the Macrostich. • Cyril, (Macedonian) bishop of Jerusalem (350-386). • Marathonius, (Macedonian) bishop of Nicomedia (c. 351-?). • Eleusius, (Macedonian) bishop of Cyzicus (c. 351-360). • Sophronius, (Macedonian) bishop of Pompeiopolis (?-360). • Dracontius, bishop of Pergamum (?-360). • Annianus of Antioch. Homoian The Homoians taught that the Son is similar to the Father, either "in all things" or "according to the scriptures," without speaking of substance. In the 5th century, Germanic immigrants defeated the Roman army, sacked Rome, and deposed the last Western Roman emperor. Most of them were Homoian Christians. • Ursacius, initially homoiousian, then homoousian, and later homoian bishop of Singidunum, who had opposed Athanasius. • Valens, initially homoiousian, then homoousian, and later homoian bishop of Mursa, who had opposed Athanasius. • Gaius. Heteroousian The Heteroousians taught that the Son is of a different substance from the Father, i.e. created. Arius had taught this early in the controversy, and Aëtius would teach the later Anomoean form. • Arius, presbyter in Alexandria. • Theophilus the Indian, who later supported Aëtius. • Aëtius, who founded the Anomoean tradition, later bishop (361-?). • Theodulus, (Anomoean) bishop of Chaeretapa (?-c. 363) and Palestine (c. 363-c. 379). • Eunomius, (Anomoean) bishop of Cyzicus (360-361) and exiled bishop (361-c. 393). • Paemenius, (Anomoean) bishop of Constantinople, (c. 363, at the same time as Eudoxius of Antioch). • Candidus, (Anomoean) bishop of Lydia, (c. 363-?). • Theonus, bishop of Marmarica, who supported Arius at Nicaea. • Theognis, bishop of Nicaea, who supported Arius at Nicaea. • Maris, bishop of Chalcedon, who supported Arius at Nicaea. • Eusebius, (possibly Homoiousian, possibly Sabellian) bishop of Emesa (c. 339 or 341). • Gregory of Cappadocia, bishop of Alexandria (339-346, rival of Athanasius of Alexandria). • Narcissus, bishop of Neronias. • Stephanus, bishop of Antioch (342-344). • Patrophilus of Scythopolis. • Athanasius of Anazarbus, who taught Aëtius. • Wulfila (died 383), first bishop of the Goths (341?-c.383), and Bible translator, who agreed to the Homoian formula at Constantinople. • Wereka and Batwin, papa and bilaifs respectively, and Gothic martyrs. • Auxentius of Durostorum, later bishop of Milan, Wulfila's adopted son. • Palladius, bishop of Ratiaria. • Dorotheus or Theodorus, Homoiousian and later Homoian bishop of Heraclea (?-378) and Antioch, (378-381, at the same time as three others). • Uranius, bishop of Tyre. • Onesimus, bishop of Nicomedia (359-?). • Hypatius of Cyrus, bishop of Nicaea (?-380). • John, Anomean bishop of Palestine (c. 379-?). • Evagrius, bishop of Mytelene. ==See also==