,
Daugavpils and
Bauska in particular had large Jewish populations. During the World War I in 1914, there were about 190,000 Jews in the territories of Latvia (7.4% of the total population). During the war years, many of them were expelled to the interior of Russia, while others escaped from the war zone. In 1920 the Jews of Latvia numbered 79,644 (5% of the population). After the signing of the peace treaty between the Latvian Republic and the
Soviet Union on August 11, 1920, repatriates began to return from Russia; these included a considerable number of Jewish refugees. In this time, there were 40,000 Jews in Riga alone. By 1925 the Jewish population had increased to 95,675, the largest number of Jews during the period of Latvia’s existence as an independent state. Between 1925 and 1935 over 6,000 Jews left Latvia (the overwhelming majority of them for the
Mandatory Palestine which was soon to be declared the
State of Israel), while the natural increase only partly replaced these departures. The largest communities were Riga with 43,672 Jews (11.3% of the total) in 1935, Daugavpils with 11,106 (25%), and Liepāja with 7,379 (13%).
Economic life Jews already played an important role in
industry,
commerce, and
banking before World War I. After the establishment of the republic, a severe crisis overtook the young state. The government had not yet consolidated itself and the country had become impoverished as a result of World War I and the struggle for independence which Latvia had conducted for several years (1918–20) against both Germany and the Soviet Union. With the cessation of hostilities, Latvia found itself retarded in both the administrative and economic spheres. Among other difficulties, there was running
inflation. Jews made a large contribution to the rebuilding of the state from the ruins of the war and its consequences. Having much experience in the export of the
raw materials of
timber and
linen before World War I, upon their return from Russia they resumed export of these goods on their own initiative. They also developed a variegated industry, and a considerable part of the import trade, such as that of
petrol,
coal, and
textiles, was concentrated in their hands. However, once the Jews had made their contribution, the authorities began to force them out of their economic positions and to deprive them of their sources of livelihood. Although, in theory, there were no discriminatory laws against the Jews in democratic Latvia and they enjoyed equality of
rights, in practice the economic policy of the government was intended to restrict their activities. This was also reflected in the area of
credit. The Jews of Latvia developed a ramified network of loan banks for the granting of credit with the support of the
American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and the
Jewish Colonization Association (JCA). Cooperative credit societies for
craftsmen, small
tradesmen, etc., were established and organized within a central body, the
Alliance of Cooperative Societies for Credit. However, the Jewish banks and cooperative societies were discriminated against in the sphere of public credit and the state bank was in practice closed to them. These societies nevertheless functioned on sound foundations. Their initial capital was relatively larger than that of the non-Jewish cooperative societies. In 1931 over 15,000 members were organized within the Jewish societies. Jews were particularly active in the following branches of industry: timber,
matches,
beer,
tobacco,
hides,
textiles,
canned foods (especially
fish), and
flour milling. About one half of the Jews of Latvia engaged in
commerce, the overwhelming majority of them in medium and small trade. About 29% of the Jewish population was occupied in industry and about 7% in the liberal professions. There were no Jews in the governmental administration. The economic situation of the majority of Latvia’s Jews became difficult. Large numbers were ousted from their economic position and lost their livelihood as a result of government policy and most of them were thrust into small trade, peddling, and
bartering in various goods at the second-hand clothes markets in the
suburbs of Riga and the provincial towns. The decline in their status was due to three principal causes: the government assumed the
monopoly of the
grain trade, thus removing large numbers of Jews from this branch of trade, without accepting them as salaried workers or providing them with any other kind of employment; the Latvian cooperatives enjoyed wide governmental support and functioned in privileged conditions in comparison to the Jewish enterprises; and Jews had difficulty in obtaining
credit. In addition to the above, the Jewish population was subjected to a heavy burden of
taxes.
Public and political life Latvian Jewry continued the communal and popular traditions of Russian Jewry, of which it formed a part until 1918. On the other hand, it was also influenced by the culture of West European Jewry, being situated within its proximity (i.e.,
East Prussia). In its spiritual life there was thus a synthesis of Jewish tradition and secular culture. From the socio-economic point of view the Jews of Latvia did not form one group, and there were considerable social differences between them. They engaged in a variety of occupations and professions: there were large, medium, and small merchants, industrialists, and different categories of craftsmen, workers, salesmen, clerks, teachers, and members of the liberal professions such as physicians, lawyers, and engineers. All these factors—economic and spiritual—were practically reflected in public life: in the national Jewish sphere and in the general political life of the state. The Jewish population was also represented in the Latvian parliament. In the
People's Council of Latvia which was formed during the first year of Latvian independence and existed until April 1920, there were also representatives of the national minorities, including seven Jews, among them (
Paul Mintz, later chairman of the Jewish National Democratic Party), who acted as Minister of Labor (1919–21), anong other high positions, and
Mordehajs Dubins (
Agudas Israel). On May 1, 1920, the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by a relatively democratic vote, was convened. It was to function until October 7, 1922, and included nine Jewish delegates who represented all groups in the Jewish population (
Zionists, National Democrats,
Bundists, Agudas Israel). The number of Jewish delegates in the four parliaments which were elected in Latvia until the coup d’état of 1934 was as follows: six in the first (1922–25), five in the second (1925–28) and the third (1928–31), and three in the fourth (1931–34). Among the long-time deputies were Dubins (Agudas Israel),
Mordehajs Nuroks (
Mizrachi, later a member of the
Knesset in Israel after the country was established in 1948),
Matitjahu Maksis Lazersons (
Ceire Cion), and
Noijs Maizels (Bund). The last two were not reelected to the fourth parliament.
Culture and education On December 8, 1919, the general bill on schools was passed by the
People's Council of Latvia; this coincided with the bill on the cultural autonomy of the minorities. In the Ministry of Education, there were special departments for the minorities. The engineer Jacob Landau (
Jakobs Landau) headed the Jewish department. A broad network of
Hebrew and
Yiddish schools, in which Jewish children received a
free education, was established. In addition to these, there were also Russian and German schools for Jewish children, chosen in accordance with the language of their families and wishes of their parents. These were, however, later excluded from the Jewish department because, by decision of the Ministry of Education, only the Hebrew and Yiddish schools were included within the scope of Jewish
autonomy. In 1933 there were ninety-eight Jewish
elementary schools with approximately 12,000 pupils and 742 teachers, eighteen
secondary schools with approximately 2,000 pupils and 286 teachers, and four
vocational schools with 300 pupils and thirty-seven teachers. Pupils attended
religious or
secular schools according to their parents’ wishes. There were also government pedagogic institutes for teachers in Hebrew and Yiddish, courses for
kindergarten teachers, popular
universities, a popular Jewish music academy, evening schools for working youth, a
Yiddish theater, and cultural clubs. There was a
Jewish press reflecting a variety of trends. After the
Ulmanis coup d’état of May 15, 1934, restrictions were placed on the autonomy of minorities' "cultures and minorities" education as well as education in native language. This was part of a wider move to standardize Latvian usage in schooling and professional and governmental sectors. As a result, Jewish schools continue to operate while secular Yiddish schools were closed. This resulted in the works of eminent Jewish authors such as the poet
Hayim Nahman Bialik () and historian
Simon Dubnow () being removed from the Jewish curriculum. Notably, Dubnow was among the Jews who fled from Germany to Latvia for safety in 1938. (Latvia continued to take in refugees until the fall of 1938.) All political parties and organizations were also abolished. Of Jewish groups, only
Agudat Israel continued to operate. Jewish social life did, however, retain its vitality. Owing in part to the restrictions imposed on minorities including Jews, the influence of religion and Zionism increased, motivating some to immigrate to Palestine. This also increased the influence of the banned
Social Democrats, while the Jewish intelligentsia gravitated toward Zionism. == World War II ==