Acceptance of the Belgian throne Search for a monarch , |180px At the end of August 1830, rebels in the
Southern provinces (modern-day Belgium) of the
United Netherlands rose up against Dutch rule. The rising, which began in
Brussels, pushed the Dutch army back, and the rebels defended themselves against a Dutch attack. International powers
meeting in London agreed to support the independence of Belgium, even though the Dutch refused to recognize the new state. In November 1830, a
National Congress was established in Belgium to create a constitution for the new state. Fears of "
mob rule" associated with republicanism after the
French Revolution of 1789, as well as the example of the recent, liberal
July Revolution in France, led the Congress to decide that Belgium would be a
popular,
constitutional monarchy. The choice of candidates for the position was one of the most controversial issues faced by the revolutionaries. The Congress refused to consider any candidate from the Dutch ruling
house of Orange-Nassau. Some
Orangists had hoped to offer the position to
William I or his son,
William, Prince of Orange, which would bring Belgium into
personal union with the Netherlands like Luxembourg. The
Great Powers also worried that a candidate from another state could risk destabilizing the
international balance of power and lobbied for a neutral candidate. Eventually the Congress was able to draw up a shortlist. The viable possibilities were felt to be
Auguste of Leuchtenberg, son of
Eugène de Beauharnais, and
Louis, Duke of Nemours, son of Louis Philippe I of France. All the candidates were French and the choice between them was principally between choosing the
Bonapartism of Beauharnais or Leuchtenberg and supporting the
July Monarchy of Louis Philippe. Louis Philippe realized that the choice of either of the
Bonapartists could be first stage of a coup against him, but that his son would also be unacceptable to other European powers suspicious of French intentions. Nemours refused the offer. With no definitive choice in sight, Catholics and Liberals united to elect
Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier, a minor Belgian nobleman, as
regent to buy more time for a definitive decision in February 1831. Due to opposition of previous candidates, the Belgian Congress proposed Leopold, who had been proposed at an early stage, but had been dropped because of French opposition. The problems caused by the French candidates and the increased international pressure for a solution led to his reconsideration. Leopold was known by the Congress due to his military past and a delegation of Belgian representatives was sent to London to meet Leopold. On 22 April, he was finally approached by the delegation at
Marlborough House to officially offer him the throne. Leopold read over the
Treaty of the Eighteen Articles prior to it being signed on 9 July 1831, officially separating Belgium and the Netherlands. The treaty also included the possibility of a repurchase of Luxembourg by Belgium. Despite all this, Leopold remained reluctant to accept the Belgian throne.
Accession On 16 July 1831, Leopold travelled from
Dover to
Calais on the royal yacht
Crusader, deciding to accept the throne. The next day he drove by carriage to
Dunkirk and entered Belgium at
De Panne. Whilst travelling to Brussels on horseback, he was greeted with patriotic enthusiasm along his route. The accession ceremony took place on 21 July on the
Place Royale in Brussels. A stand had been erected on the steps of the
Church of St. James on Coudenberg, surrounded by the names of revolutionaries fallen during the fighting in 1830. After a ceremony of resignation by the regent, Leopold, dressed in the uniform of a Belgian lieutenant-general, swore loyalty to the constitution, under the supervision of congressman
Jean-Baptiste Nothomb, and became king. Leopold said in his speech: "I have come hither to work for the welfare of this country, and to preserve, by my acceptance of the crown, the peace of Europe; whatever can contribute to these two things, I will do it; anything beyond that will be harmful." Leopold's enthronement has generally been used to mark the end of the revolution and the start of the Kingdom of Belgium and is celebrated each year as
the Belgian national holiday.
Consolidation of independence Although the Belgian Constitution to which Leopold swore gave the monarch command of the army only as an honorary title, Leopold signalled on multiple occasions that he would personally place himself in charge of the army if Belgium were to be attacked. The Belgian population was widely content with this due to his previous military experience. Less than two weeks after Leopold's accession, on 2 August 1831, the Netherlands invaded Belgium, starting the
Ten Days' Campaign. Leopold immediately requested that
Belgian prime minister,
Joseph Lebeau, contact the foreign offices in London and Paris for assistance. Leopold here followed the Constitution, which forbade him personally from calling upon foreign powers without permission from the legislature, which at this time had not yet been elected. The small Belgian army was overwhelmed by the Dutch assault and was pushed back, and Leopold took command of a small force that defended the outskirts of Brussels. Leopold once again appealed to the French for support. The French promised support, and the arrival of their '''' in Belgium forced the Dutch to retreat. Great Britain refused to intervene. Eventually, the Netherlands accepted a diplomatic mediation and returned behind to the pre-war border. Skirmishes continued for eight years, but in April 1839, the two countries signed the
Treaty of London, whereby the Dutch finally recognised Belgium's independence. Leopold's attitude during the war earned him both praise and criticism in the Belgian media. For example, an article in ''
L'Indépendance Belge read, "The King of the Belgians, [...] showed rare composure and intrepidity. Always in the most perilous places, he was often obliged to fulfil both the functions of generalissimo and those of second lieutenant." However, an article the following day critiqued, "The approach of our troops repaired everything, but what is less repairable is the failure that the Belgians suffered in the opinion of Europe." Following the war and large losses that Belgium suffered, Leopold reorganised national defence, disbanded the Garde Civique'' and legislated the army's numbers at 80,000 men. When the Dutch abandoned Belgium, they left a garrison force that closed the
Scheldt to Belgian shipping, meaning that the inland
port of Antwerp was effectively useless. The Netherlands and the Dutch colonies in particular, which had been profitable markets for Belgian manufacturers before 1830, became totally closed to Belgian goods. The French
Army of the North, which had helped Belgium considerably in the Ten Days' Campaign, defeated the Dutch army the following year and laid
siege to Antwerp on 15 November 1832. However, the Dutch managed to burn down much of the city before its liberation, and subsequent fighting remained until the Netherlands was finally defeated on 23 December 1832. The Dutch government continued to refuse to recognise the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles and
William I of the Netherlands organised in May 1833 an embargo of Dutch coasts. Belgian, British and Dutch delegations subsequently met in
Zonhoven to resolve the matters, but Leopold left unsatisfied as no agreements were definitively made. In April 1834, anti-
Orangist riots broke out in Brussels and soon developed into protests in favour of Leopold. Several of the former residences of William's family in Belgium and hotels in Brussels were ransacked, leading to Leopold travelling in on horseback and convincing the protestors to disband by giving a speech. Leopold's advisers believed that peace had been restored and suggested he left, but soon after the Hotel of Trazegnies was also ransacked and the military were sent in. Over 115 people were arrested and seven were wounded, before the Belgian legislature passed a law punishing pro-Orangist propaganda. Subsequently, Leopold took charge of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to deal with diplomatic clashes with the Netherlands, including the matter of Belgian claims to
Dutch Limburg, which Leopold was unable to obtain, thus ruining his prospect for a new railway line through the region. He was successful however in reducing the country's debt to the Netherlands from 8,400,000 to 5,400,000
florins. The Netherlands would finally go on to recognise Belgian independence by signing the
Treaty of London in 1839. The Dutch-Belgian border was agreed to on 8 August 1843 with the
Treaty of Maastricht. Leopold was generally unsatisfied with the amount of power allocated to the monarch in the Constitution, and sought to extend it wherever the Constitution was ambiguous or unclear while generally avoiding involvement in routine politics.
Marriage, family and residences Though Leopold was now monarch, there was concern over the issue of dynastic succession with Leopold having no issue because of his widowed status. To strengthen ties with France, Leopold considered marrying a French princess and approached the
king of the French,
Louis Philippe I, who agreed to Leopold marrying his daughter,
Louise of Orléans. They married on 9 August 1832 at the
Château de Compiègne and participated in a civil ceremony, a Catholic service and a Lutheran blessing. Although the marriage was arranged, Patrick Roegiers writes that the pair found happiness in each other. Soon after their wedding, Leopold asked the government if Louise could be appointed regent while he travelled, but they unanimously opposed. Louise gave birth to their first son,
Louis Philippe, on 24 July 1833; however, the infant died nine months later on 16 May 1834 from an inflammation of mucous membranes. Two years later, on 9 April 1835, Louise gave birth to a second son,
Leopold. Two more children,
Philippe and
Charlotte, followed on 24 March 1837 and 7 June 1840 respectively. Of his three royal residences, the Royal Palace of Antwerp, the
Royal Palace of Brussels and the
Castle of Laeken, Leopold chose the latter as it reminded him of his erstwhile British residence, Claremont House. There, Leopold and Louise lived a generally relaxed and quiet life, with Louise stating that "The King, his dog and I" only lived there. According to Bronne, they would wake up mid-morning, attend mass and then read through their mail, which was sent in from Paris. Louise was often excited to read Parisian mail as it often came from her own family. When receiving politicians, officials and members of Belgian aristocracy, Leopold would often engage in
cue sports. In 1844, Leopold met
Arcadie Claret, the eighteen-year-old daughter of an officer in the Belgian army. They very soon after had an affair and Leopold encouraged her to marry to avoid being caught out. Claret married Ferdinand Meyer in 1845, who managed the royal stables and agreed to be her husband in return for financial compensation. However, Meyer soon left for Coburg to allow Leopold and Claret to continue their relationship. Claret was placed in a house near the Royal Palace of Brussels and was discovered as Leopold's mistress by the media, which also highlights Louise's declining health. Claret's house was attacked by the public for her use of palace carriages when going out. Leopold, per his advisors, encouraged Claret to have more restraint when travelling, but she left Belgium for Germany in October 1850. She eventually returned to Belgium and moved into the
Château of Stuyvenberg. Leopold had two illegitimate sons, George and Arthur, by Claret. was born in 1849, and in 1852. At Leopold's request,
Domestic policy, politics and infrastructure While the drafters of the Belgian Constitution aimed to make Belgium a constitutional monarchy, making the monarch a neutral and impartial arbiter, Leopold had managed to assign himself significant powers, such as assuming multiple ministries and taking charge of many diplomatic, administrative and military domains. From 1831 to 1846, politics in Belgium was divided between
Liberal and
Catholic parties, along with
unionist governments. Catholicism had always been the dominant religion in Belgium, yet Leopold had always refused to convert from his Lutheran faith and favoured the Liberals. To appease to the public, he sought to maintain cordial relations with the
Holy See, though Louis de Lichtervelde suggests it may have been to reassure and consolidate his own power against "the only other force" (Catholicism) which was more popular than him. Leopold also believed that the Church would act as a means of unity for Belgium, which
was linguistically divided. Leopold was opposed to Lebeau forming government as his party had voted against
Barthélémy de Theux de Meylandt, which caused the government's collapse. In 1846, the
Party for Freedom and Progress convened to strengthen the cooperation between the executive and legislature, and as a result of new Bills passed by
Charles Rogier's government, the role of the monarch was reduced and Liberals dominated politics, advocating for free trade, freedoms, liberties and secularisation. During the second half of Leopold's reign, the Liberals remained in power. While meeting with the government, Leopold made it clear that he believed the appointment and dismissal of ministers was his prerogative under the Constitution, and demanded that he be informed in advance of all government, ministerial and administrative decisions. Throughout Leopold's reign, Belgium experienced economic and industrial progress, despite economic crises during the early decades of his reign. The period between 1845 and 1849 was particularly hard in Flanders, where harvests failed and a third of the population became dependent on poor relief, and has been described as the "worst years of Flemish history". The economic situation in Flanders also increased the internal migration to Brussels and the industrial areas of
Wallonia, which continued throughout the period. Despite this, Leopold worked closely with the government to develop infrastructure, which he promised in his enthronement speech: "Multiple efforts will be directed towards the improvement and extension of agriculture, commerce and industry; they contribute to spreading prosperity among the various classes of inhabitants and to cementing harmony." In 1842, Leopold failed to pass laws to regulate child and women labour. He wanted to ban them from working in certain industries, such as harvesting in which he believed they dominated; however, the Bill he proposed was defeated, and child labour continued to be abused. For example, in 1850, the coal industry employed nearly 3300 women, 4400 boys and 1221 girls under the age of sixteen in underground labour. In agriculture, similar statistics existed with harsh working conditions and low wages. An investigation was conducted in 1853 and 1854 by
Édouard Ducpétiaux found that the average Belgian worker had to devote 65.8% of their wage to basic needs. Leopold never recognised or tended to the issue of low wages. Leopold was an early supporter of railways. Belgium's first stretch of railway, between northern Brussels and
Mechelen, was completed in May 1835. It was the first steam passenger railway in Continental Europe. The development of railways allowed for the growth of the industry and in an 1847 speech, Leopold remarked: "Freight transport and railway revenues continue to increase at a remarkable rate. Measures are being prepared to increase them further and to introduce improvements in the operation of this important service." Multiple historians attribute the development and production of
cast iron, steel, coal, glassworks and cloth weaving to Leopold's reign. Earlier in 1835, Leopold had inaugurated the
National Bank of Belgium, which solidified the 1832 creation and circulation of the
Belgian franc. Leopold appeared on coinage and postage stamps, which had helped to congeal the legitimacy of his reign in the early years.
Revolution of 1848 In 1848, protests plagued the majority of Europe. The success of economic reforms partially mitigated the effects of the economic downturn and meant that Belgium was not as badly affected as its neighbours by the
Revolutions of 1848. Nevertheless, in early 1848, a large number of radical publications appeared. The most serious threat of the 1848 revolutions in Belgium was posed by Belgian
émigré groups. Shortly after the
French Revolution of 1848, Belgian migrant workers living in Paris were encouraged to return to Belgium to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Around 6000 armed émigrés of the "
Belgian Legion" attempted to cross the Belgian frontier. The first group, travelling by train, was stopped and quickly disarmed at
Quiévrain on 26 March 1848. The second group crossed the border on 29 March and headed for Brussels, and was confronted by Belgian troops at the hamlet of
Risquons-Tout and, during fighting, seven émigrés were killed and most of the rest were captured. In order to defuse tension, the government adopted multiple measures aimed at liberalising the country and preventing it from being attacked by revolutionary ideas of its neighbours. For example, the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished and agents who the state believed could serve as potential disturbances to public order, such as
Karl Marx, were expelled from Belgium in March. Ultimately, Leopold theatrically offered his abdication, if this was the wish of the majority of his people. Historians such as Stengers and
Éliane Gubin claim that it was the first time in his life that Leopold regretted not taking up the offer of the Greek throne. The defeat at Risquons-Tout effectively ended the revolutionary threat to Belgium, as the situation in Belgium began to recover that summer after a good harvest, and
fresh elections returned a strong Liberal majority. At the end of 1848, Leopold commented on the situation: "You know this country which, I can say without false modesty, has been administered in an exemplary manner for almost 18 years. It proved itself well during the crisis and despite the terrible neighbourhood of Paris. [...] After this trial by fire, the country became very solid [...], I gained the trust of most of the Cabinets and also of the people; I intend to use it and use it to the full for the benefit of Europe."
Foreign policy Role in European affairs '' by
Franz Xaver Winterhalter, |180px For his role in European affairs, Leopold was dubbed the "
Nestor of Europe", after the wise mediator in
Homer's
Iliad. This was also due to his connection to other monarchs. For example, Leopold's niece was Queen of the United Kingdom, his nephew was Prince Consort of the United Kingdom and his other nephew was the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He remained in close contact with his sovereign relatives, particularly Queen Victoria. Historian
Jean Stengers records that Leopold's intervention in European affairs was to look after Belgian interests, to look after British interests and to encourage peace to maintain the conservative order. Not only did Leopold have high-level correspondence with other leaders, but he regularly travelled and made informal and state visits. Throughout his reign and particularly in the 1840s, a main goal of his was to repair
Franco-British relations due to the
Eastern question. imposed by Article VII of the
Treaty of London (1839). While most historians have depicted Leopold as faithful to this, others have not, such as Belgian historian Jan Anckaer, who interprets Leopold's diplomatic efforts in the
Second Egyptian-Ottoman War in 1840 The company purchased 404,666 hectares of land in
Santo Tomás de Castilla (modern-day
Guatemala) granted by the Guatemalan dictator
Rafael Carrera. An exploration commission was sent on 9 November 1841 in order to finalise the purchase; however, Belgian delegates soon began leaving due to unsanitary conditions. Leopold pushed for the project to continue. Until 1847, Belgium sent ships full of settlers, served prisoners and working-class men to the territory, promising a more hopeful future; however, this failed due to harsh conditions leading to a high mortality rate. In 1855, Guatemala pulled out from the deal. During the
Second Opium War, Great Britain and France sent expeditionary forces to
China, bound for
Beijing in 1859. Under Leopold's eldest son, Leopold, who held an interest in the
Far East, Belgium sought to involve itself by sending volunteers so that the country would economically benefit and strengthen ties with Britain and France. Leopold contacted Napoleon III, and the two agreed to Belgian involvement; however, the government stated that it would pull out if conflict were to occur. In 1860, Leopold sent his youngest son, Philip, to
Brazil so that he could marry one of the daughters of Emperor
Pedro II. Pedro subsequently gifted Philip with multiple territories for European migrants to settle on. Leopold was eager for the marriage to work as it would establish a branch of his family in South America. However, Philip was unimpressed and abandoned the project. By the end of Leopold's reign, Belgium still lacked colonies; however, his son would soon acquire the
Congo as his own personal private property before ceding it to Belgium in 1908.
Role in family affairs and the death of Louise As a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Leopold was eager to see his family's influence rise throughout Europe. He skillfully used his family connections and marriages to protect Belgium from French ambitions and the threat of annexation by Napoleon III. Leopold supported the marriage of his nephew,
Ferdinand, to the
queen of Portugal,
Maria II, in 1836. Portugal had a longstanding alliance with Great Britain and with his nephew now on the Portuguese throne
jure uxoris, Leopold hoped it would bring Belgium and Britain closer. In 1840, Leopold's nephew, Albert, married his first cousin and Leopold's niece, Queen Victoria, thus cementing Anglo-Belgian ties. In 1843, Leopold's nephew,
Prince August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, married Louise's sister,
Princess Clémentine of Orléans, thus again uniting the two royal houses. Though Leopold had influenced all these royal marriages, he was not always as successful. In 1846, August's brother,
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, failed to marry
Isabella II of Spain. Meanwhile, in France in 1850, Louise had caught a cold while attending a ceremony commemorating her recently deceased father. Though medical experts did not seem concerned, Louise died prematurely on 11 October 1850, aged 38. It was the second time Leopold was widowed and he became deeply saddened by this. Per Defrance, the mood in the royal court fell sombre dramatically after this. Leopold and Louise's children, who were barely teenagers, suffered in the absence of their mother and were often left to nannies. Louise had personally educated her children and now tutors needed to be found. Leopold became more reclusive and distanced from his family, with it becoming normal for their only form of communication to be by letter, either in French or German. Leopold found comfort in Louise's friend and his daughter's tutor, Countess Denise d'Hulst, and he attempted to father his two sons, who began regularly rebelling against him. As his children aged, Leopold was gladdened to see his eldest son and daughter marry into the
House of Habsburg-Lorraine, who served as the
Emperors of Austria and previously of the
Holy Roman Empire. In 1853, Leopold's eldest son married
Marie Henriette of Austria, a first cousin of Emperor
Franz Joseph I. Four years later, Leopold encouraged the matrimonial pairing of his daughter, Charlotte, with
Archduke Maximilian of Austria, who was later appointed the
Emperor of Mexico. Additionally, Leopold's great-nephew,
Edward, Prince of Wales (the future Edward VII), married
Alexandra of Denmark in 1862 under the auspices of Leopold. Edward's mother, Queen Victoria, continued Leopold's legacy of arranging royal marriages for the family, becoming nicknamed the "
grandmother of Europe". However, Leopold's role in Belgian diplomacy diminished in favour of the government in the later years of his reign. In 1859, he failed to convince his Cabinet to send a Belgian brigade to support Anglo-French naval troops in China, and in 1863, he played little role in negotiations concerning the purchase of the Scheldt toll.
Later reign Silver Jubilee In Summer 1856, Leopold celebrated his
Silver Jubilee, celebrating 25 years of his reign and since the inauguration of the first king of the Belgians. On 21 July 1856, Leopold travelled on horseback on the same route that he had taken when he first arrived in Belgium, through Laeken and then to the Royal Palace of Brussels. His two sons also travelled with him, and he attended a
Te Deum of gratitude in his honour. While Leopold had become more reclusive as his reign continued, he was delighted with his jubilee and made many appearances. In the following months of the anniversary, Leopold and his sons visited each province of the country, where they stayed at each capital and attended processions, balls, banquets, Church services and factory tours. Stockmar, who was in retirement in Coburg, wrote in his diary his surprise of the use of the Dutch language during the tour. The following year, Belgium faced a political crisis when Catholic Prime Minister
Pierre de Decker introduced a new Bill into Parliament which he believed would act as a unifying force between the Catholics and the Liberals. The Bill was debated over 27 parliamentary sessions, as it was deemed controversial by the shadow ministry and Opposition. Protests by the public against the Bill soon broke out in the capital cities and demonstrators surrounded the
Palace of the Nation. On 28 May, Leopold called in troops to calm the protests and angrily declared: "I will ride on horseback if necessary to protect the national representation; I will not allow the majority to be outraged; I will crush these scoundrels." As rioting continued, Leopold suggested that the articles in the Bill be separated, but de Decker denounced him and soon abandoned it completely. Leopold sent him a letter, which was published in the
Moniteur, in which he criticised the government and wrote: "It was not I who abandoned them in 1857, it was they who abandoned me. I was ready to ride a horse, I wouldn't have backed down. They left me in the presence of disorder; they reduced me to giving in to disorder and no one could understand how profound such humiliation was." On 9 November 1857, after de Decker resigned and the government fell, Rogier returned to office and formed a Liberal government, which lasted for ten years and went on to outlive Leopold. Rogier also held the position of
Minister of the Interior, with parliamentarians
Walthère Frère-Orban and
Victor Tesch assuming other different ministries. This new government acted by the Constitution, but took an anticlerical attitude due to the protests. In 1861, the government introduced new legislation regarding scholarships, and took funding away from Catholic cemeteries as a punishment for the previous government who had done the same for atheist cemeteries. Leopold was strongly against these anti-religious stances taken by Rogier's Cabinet, but remained impartial per his constitutional role as a neutral figurehead, though he did threaten to override new changes if it was made clear they were not the will of the majority. However, after 1857, Leopold's main concern for Belgium was its defence and he was glad when Antwerp was chosen as the future development site of the
National Redoubt. In 1859, a statue of Leopold was erected at the top of the
Congress Column to mark his earlier Silver Jubilee. On 12 June, Leopold was also delighted by the birth of his first grandson,
Prince Leopold. Furthermore, in 1860, Leopold again visited each provincial capital city despite being ill and his declining health. Upon his return to Brussels in September 1860, Leopold decided to no longer preside over the Council of Ministers and to roll back on his other duties due to his aging condition. Additionally, all of Leopold's mail was now read by and responded to by Van Praet, instead of by Leopold directly.
Interests in the Americas Unlike Leopold's elder son, Leopold's daughter, Charlotte, personally chose her husband of Archduke Maximilian, the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I. Leopold preferred that she married his great-nephew,
Peter V of Portugal, but did not oppose her decision. A few weeks after their wedding, in September 1857, Maximilian was appointed Viceroy of the
Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. During the
Austro-Sardinian War, Leopold gave unwanted strategic advice to Franz Joseph, who mocked and did not follow it. When Austria lost Lombardy, Leopold advised Prussia to assemble an army on the
Rhine, which was seen as Leopold taking the Prussian side in the
Austro-Prussian rivalry. In 1861, the
American Civil War broke out and despite Belgian neutrality, Leopold favoured the
Confederate States due to the
Union's imposition of economic blockades, including the refusal to export South American goods to Europe. According to historian Francis Balace, Leopold played an important role as a mediator between the United States and the rest of Europe, as well as in convincing other European states to back the South. In contrast, historian Jacques Portes has downplayed the significance of Leopold's role by painting him as an ineffective transmitter of correspondence between the two sides with little care for Belgium's impartiality. In Mexico, President
Benito Juárez suspended the country's payment of its foreign debt in July 1861, to the displeasure of Great Britain, France and Spain. Napoleon III took it as an opportunity to
intervene in Mexico, aiming to spread Catholicism and the influence of the United States in the Americas. He offered the imperial crown of Mexico to Maximilian as an apology to Austria for earlier siding with Sardinia. Much to the delight of Leopold, Maximilian accepted and left Austria with Charlotte for Mexico, arriving in Mexico City on 12 June 1864 despite armed opposition from republicans. Leopold encouraged the sending of a
Belgian Legion, composed of 4000 male volunteers, to support his daughter. When the American Civil War ended, the United States government signalled its support for Juárez. Maximilian and Charlotte asked Leopold for some advice, but the helpless aging monarch merely replied, "God bless you, I can no longer help you." The strong Mexican resistance and failure to push back against it led to Napoleon III abandoning Mexico on 15 January 1866. Charlotte escaped Mexico in July to get assistance from European states, who ignored her and left Maximilian, who refused to abdicate and was later executed on 18 June 1867.
Final years Until the age of 70, Leopold enjoyed relatively good health. However, in 1861, he faced several problems that severely affected him. His sister, Princess Victoria, died in March and his great-nephew, Peter V, aged 24, died of typhoid fever in November, only weeks before his brother,
Infante João, Duke of Beja, also died. Additionally, his nephew, Albert, died in December. Leopold attended his funeral to support his niece, Queen Victoria, and during this time suffered from kidney stones. Leopold underwent a
lithotripsy in the following March and many more in the subsequent months. Despite his health issues, Leopold was still able to engage in leisure activities, such as hunting; however, he suffered a stroke at the beginning of 1865. His health continued to decline for the remainder of the year. ==Death and funeral==