. . The Seven Sages'', attributed to
Master at the Court of Mankot.
Bandralta-
Mankot workshop, c. 1700.
Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh. .
Udaipur, c. 1707–8.
Metropolitan Museum of Art. , c. 1707–1715.
Art Gallery of New South Wales. , c. 1720–1740.
Harvard Art Museums. . .
Guler, c. 1730. Los Angeles County Museum of Art. . Kota, 1730–1735.
Rao Madho Singh Trust Museum. .
Jasrota, 1745–1750. Rietberg Museum. hunting tiger'' by
Jiva. Mewar, 1749. San Diego Museum of Art. .
Kishangarh, c. 1750. National Museum, New Delhi. . , son of
Manaku.
Kangra, c. 1780–1790.
Philadelphia Museum of Art. , c. 1780–1790.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. . Jaipur, c. 1800. Metropolitan Museum of Art. .
Deogarh, 1806. Metropolitan Museum of Art. .
Kangra, c. 1800–1815.
Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh. , were bathed in
panchamrita, the 'five nectars': milk, yoghurt, clarified butter, honey and sugar. In the painting Maharao crouches at right, looking very much like a priest of a temple - bare of upper body, clad only in a pristine white dhoti, head completely shaven, a long vertical tilaka on the forehead - with only his rich jewellery setting him apart from the priest at left. He pouring milk from a conch shell held reverently in both hands, over the sacred, symbolic rock. On the gilstering marble floor, placed on pedestals or receptacles, lie objects used in the ritual: five earthen lamps in the four corners, flasks, paan boxes,
Yamuna water in ewers covered with red cloth. In the very centre of painting, resting on a simhasana (throne) is placed the sacred image of Brijnathji, sporting a peacock-feather crown, his two consorts flanikng him. And over it, made with sugar-cane stalks tied at the top, an arched canopy looms, following prescribed ritual. Kota, c. 1831. Rao Madho Singh Trust Museum. in
Nawalgarh, an example of
Shekhawati painting Rajput and Mughal painting Decline of imperial patronage under
Aurangzeb means that at the beginning of the 18th century, Rajput painting was the dominant style of Indian painting. At this point in time, Rajput palaces contained gardens, courtyards, pavilions, and
durbar halls in the Mughal fashion, court dress and manners often followed Mughal standards, and many painters used finer pigments to paint subtler perceptions of the natural world in softer colors. "Neither architects nor painters working for Rajput patrons adopted anything more than this superficial appearance of Mughal taste, however. Even when painting portraits - a Mughal inspired subject - the Rajput artist showed no sustained interest in the visual specificity, or individual psychological comprehension, that was so distinctive a Mughal contribution to Indian art. Figures remained types. The regard for human portraiture so remarkable in the works of such Mughal artists as
Govardhan or
Hashim is found virtually nowhere in Rajput painting". The difference of attitude is nowhere more obvious than in the treatment of space. A sense of spatial depth "is basic to the mature phase of Mughal painting. By creating a visual equivalent for empty space, in which solid forms are carefully located, the boundaries and thus the inherent separateness of these forms is affirmed". Rajput artist sought to show instead the inseparability of forms, and found it more effective to use a less scientific space, even to deny the concept of empty space. In
Maharao Jagat Singh of Kota in a Garden (see illustration) or
Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur listening to music (see illustration), for example, "the background is as aesthetically expressive and assertive as the human figures". The individual uniqueness of physical forms is denied also in other ways, because Hindu poetry continually presents forms and shapes as metaphors and symbols evoking other, quite different sensations, of more universal, often religious quality. Therefore, Hindu paintings too seek to generalize and, for example, the stance of the ruler in Rajput art describe rather some universal quality, like pride, than a specific physiognomy. All of this does not change the fact, that a general trend throughout Rajput painting in this period is a growing interest in spatial realization, even if not achieved through linear perspective, consequent on a movement of artists from Delhi to Rajput courts. This is linked with reinvigoration of Mughal painting under the patronage of
Muhammad Shah (r. 1719–1748), whose "reign was long enough for a distinctive style to flower". Mughal artists again experimented with light and space and the depiction of buildings in almost perfect perspective is particularly successful. This minor renaissance ended abruptly in 1739 when
Nader Shah invaded India and sacked Delhi. After this "all who could flee from Delhi did so" and many painters made their way to Rajput courts. Their new approach to space allowed newer subjects such as group portraiture, durbar scenes, recording of court ceremonial and grand hunts to enter the traditional repertoire of the Rajput studios.
Mewar A good example of adaptation of a new technique, only to reinforce traditional sensibilities, are works of a painter from Mewar called by today scholars
Stipple Master (fl. c. 1692 - 1715). This anonymous artist got his name from his technique of a "grisaille", a progressively linear "painted drawing" style, often allowing the buffbackground paper to remain uncolored (see illustration of
Maharana Amar Singh II with Ladies of the Zenana outside the Picture Hall at Rajnagar). The technique almost certainly originated in the modelling formulas found in European prints, and was previously used in Mughal and
Deccan painting. In works of Stipple Master, however, lines of shading do not follow the effects of light, but repeat and reinforce the linear definition of the drapery outlines and folds. The same contour shading was used in
Ajanta paintings and Rajasthani
Ragamalas and "while it gives to forms a sense of weight and mass, it also emphasizes the way those forms fit together with other shapes on the picture surface; it integrates, rather than separates, forms. Once again, the European source was used in a way totally compatible with traditional sensibilities and techniques". Prior to that time, Mewar court painters primarily produced manuscripts, and some portraits, and used a flat application of primary colors, with almost no shading, little or no perspective and showed only limited consideration for realistic representation. Stipple Master used his technique to produce accurate and intimate portraits of
Amar Singh (r. 1698 - 1710), as well as some large court scenes and "this innovation of court reportage above all determined the course of the later Udaipur school. Under
Sangram Singh II (r. 1710-1734), scenes of darbars, festivals, hunts, temple visits, animal fights and other spectacles became ever larger and more populous and detailed, providing a comprehensive record of the ruler’s public life and the activities of his court". Mughal models became submerged in the vigorous, sometimes naively archaic compositions of the Mewar artists, who continued to experiment with consecutive narration and multiple viewpoints. (see illustration of
Maharana Jagat Singh II hunting tiger) These large-format paintings illustrating the doings of the Maharana and his court were continued by
Jagat Singh II (r. 1734–1751) and his successors. The best of the outside scenes, in their naturalistic rendition of hills and skies, show landscape conventions taken from the Mughal painting of the
Muhammad Shah period, perhaps introduced by the artist
Jai Ram (fl c. 1720–51). Jai Ram seems to have been the driving force also behind the series of at least ten upright-format paintings of Rāsalīlā (religious dance dramas) performed before Jagat Singh II. In the reign of
Ari Singh (r. 1761–1773) even more of these scenes were painted, "although some artists, including the youthful
Bagta, were able to rise above the general level and impose some order on the often chaotic earlier style in the rendition of both landscape and architecture". After this date painting at Udaipur fell into decline until the early 19th century. Some of the artists took up employment at the minor courts of the nobles, among them Bagta (fl 1756–1811), who spent the remainder of a long career working at
Deogarh. Here, in works of Bagta, his son
Chokha (fl 1799–1824) and Chokha's son
Baijnath (fl c. 1825–40) "a vigorous variant of the Udaipur style flourished for at least three generations". The Udaipur style was reinvigorated by the return of Chokha to Udaipur and later work of the leading artist of the
Sardar Singh (r. 1842–1861) court,
Tara (fl 1836–68). Mewar painting, concentrated on court activities of its rulers, existed in a diminished form and with increasing European influence until the abolition of princely powers in 1949 brought an end to royal patronage.
Bundi and Kota Bundi and Kota paintings continued previous themes and styles and began for the first time seriously to investigate portraiture. A succession struggle in Bundi at the beginning of this period prevented any serious royal patronage until the reign of Umed Singh (1739–1770), from whose reign we have his portrait with his sons (see illustration), one of the key paintings of the later Bundi style. According to
Jeremiah P. Losty "this was on a generally small scale with themes mostly concentrating on female subjects and erotic subjects with hot passionate colors. Figures are often set often against a cool white architecture, another offshoot of Mughal painting under Muhammad Shah, but with strange shading round the face. In the meantime some Bundi artists had migrated to the small state of
Uniara and also to nearby Kota". By the end of the 19th century, Bundi painting was replaced by photography. In Kota "there developed one of the most instantly appealing genres of Rajput painting, the great hunting scenes in which the Maharaos pitted themselves against tigers, lions, boars and wild elephants". The Kota artists of this period headed by
Shaykh Taju were master draftsmen who brushed their animals with the skill of calligraphers and the generally sparse color tones of these pictures allow the superb quality of the draftsmanship to shine through. Landscape is viewed from on high, and the ground appears to slope upwards under a dense coverage of trees marching up the hillside often interspersed with overarching bamboos and ending in a fringe of trees crowning the topmost line. Kota artists drew often from life, and their sketches are some of the liveliest ever produced in Indian art. Large-format miniature paintings of hunting scenes were produced especially during the reign of Umed Singh (r. 1770–1819). Still, Kota painters also made portraits and
Ragamalas, with
Ragamala set of 1768 having over 240 miniatures (Udaipur, Sarasvati Bhavar lib.). Another strain of Kota painting is religious art, much of which is linked to increased interest in Krishna and
Rama, with paintings focused on Brijnathji form of Krishna (linked with
Shrinathji cult in
Nathdwara) forming its own subgenre (see illustration of
Maharao Kishor Singh of Kota Celebrating a Religious Festival). Painting in Kota received its last important impetus under Ram Singh (r. 1827–66), who sponsored art focusing on his court and religious activities (see illustration of
Maharao Ram Singh II of Kotah and companions playing Holi on elephants in a street). Shatru Sal (r. 1866–89) was the last important patron of Kota painting, which by the end of the 19th century had disappeared altogether.
Bikaner In the 18th century, Bikaner painters continue their work in the characteristic, largely delicate and poetic style, which combined Deccani and Mughal influences.
Ustad Murad (fl 1705–1722) was master of this style and his influence continued at Bikaner for some decades. Matrimonial ties with
Marwar and
Jaipur in the latter years of the reign of Zorawar Singh (reg 1736–45) and the first half of that of Gaj Singh (r. 1746–87) had an impact on painting. Some works maintain Bikaner style, but others show a dominant Marwar influence. Until the third quarter of the century "human expressions remained lively, and landscape was well treated, if conventional. However, paintings lost their subtlety, and compositions were less well integrated". Gaj Singh patronized over 200 artists, who excelled in precision and refinement, but showed little interest in psychology, and their style became hard and artificial. Continued political and matrimonial ties with Jaipur led to a further influx of Jaipur artists into the court workshops during the reigns of Surat Singh (r. 1787–1827) and Ratan Singh (r. 1827–51) and new painters usurped the prestige and landholdings of local lineages. Interaction between an already degenerate Jaipur style and the Bikaner idiom created a new hybrid style, characterized by crudely modelled figures, ornamental foliage and trees and a preference for an unusual shade of an almost acidic green. A treaty signed with the British in 1818 and the advent of the
Company painting dealt a heavy blow to the Bikaner school. However, a small group of artists continued to work in the declining royal ateliers of Saradar Singh (1851–72) and his successors.
Marwar In 1678
Jodhpur was taken under Mughal control, a situation that lasted until the
Aurangzeb's death in 1707, when
Ajit Singh (r. 1707–24) was able to recapture his kingdom. With Mughals to Marwar come a taste for equestrian portraiture and influence of imperial painting was consolidated by arrival of
Dalchand (fl c. 1720–1750) at the court of
Abahai Singh (r. 1724–1749). Trained in Delhi Dalchand, as its most gifted exponent, epitomize "the virtuosity and formality of 18th-century painting in Marwar". Without Dalchand's sensitivity or refinement the Jodhpur portrait style reverted to one of relatively flat compositions in brilliant colors for the rest of the century and as early as 1720 the style had spread to various
thikanas. Among them the most important centres of painting was
Ghanerao and
Nagaur - the last one the residence of
Bakht Singh (r. 1751–1752) before his brief reign in Jodhpur.
Vijay Singh (r. 1752–1793) patronized the production of illustrated
pothī manuscripts of the
Vaishanava texts "in dimensions never before attempted. Their style is in many ways a continuation of the earlier garden style at Nagaur". Marwar painting entered its most prolific phase during the reign of
Man Singh (r. 1803–43), who was an enthusiastic patron of the arts, as well as an ardent believer of the
Nath sect. During his reign large-scale
pothī manuscripts of sacred Nath texts were produced in a hard-edged brilliant style glittering with gold, but he commissioned also many other religious and secular manuscripts, as well as court paintings. The most important artists of this period were
Amar Das,
Shiva Das and
Bulaki (all fl c. 1820–50). Tradition of Marwar painting ended during the reign of
Jaswant Singh II (r. 1873–95), a progressive and Western-looking ruler, who in emulation of
Victorian England recorded courtly life and the nobles of neighbour states by photograph.
Kishangarh Kishangarh was one of the smallest Rajput states, but brilliance of its painting, characterized by a unique lyrical sensibility, "secures Kishangarh’s important position among the numerous schools of Indian painting". Earliest dated Kishangarh painting comes from 1694 and, like other works from this period, demonstrate a close stylistic affinity to contemporary Mughal painting. Raj Singh (r. 1706–48) was great patron of the arts and a painter himself. In 1719 to Kishangarh came Delhi artist
Bhavanidas (c. 1680/85 - d. after 1748), who was followed by his son Dalchand (as was mentioned earlier he also painted in Jodhpur) and nephew Kalyan Das. Bhavanidas was a teacher of
Nihal Chand (c. 1710–1782), whose paintings represent the quintessential Kishangarh idiom. It has been assumed that the classic Kishangarh style resulted from the relationship between Savant Singh (r. 1748–1764), who was a poet and devotee of Krishna, and his uniquely gifted artist, who created lyrical masterpieces in idyllic settings corresponding to the idealized sacred places. His paintings depict the idealized lovers Radha and Krishna who "are both depicted with impossibly slender waists, arching backs and sloping profiles with huge eyes upturned at the corner (the Radha figure supposedly based on Savant Singh's mistress Bani Thani); these mannerisms permeate Kishangarh painting throughout our period". Although painting continued at Kishangarh under later rulers, "by the late 18th century the early delicacy was often replaced by a hardening of the line and an exaggeration of the distinctive Kishangarh facial features that result in near caricature". Later works reflect a movement away from the Mughal-influenced idiom of the 18th century "and towards the general Rajasthani style of the 19th. Gone is the characteristic Kishangarh female facial type of the mid-18th century, as too are the refined execution and air of romantic nostalgia".
Jaipur Amber painting in the 17th century was under the strong Mughal influence, "but in the new century Amber artists take little interest in Mughal spatial conventions, especially in their ragamala paintings". In 1728
Sawai Jai Singh (r. 1699–1743) transferred capital to
Jaipur, where he established a sprawling complex devoted to the arts of the book. Sawai Jai Singh had a large collection of Mughal, Deccani and Rajasthani paintings and some Jaipur paintings of this period seems linked to art of Muhammad Shah era. Still, more usual are the many ragamala sets of the mid-century that convert the pavilion in the terrace scene and flatten the architecture (see illustration of
Ragini Madhumadhavi - Girl flees from a storm). It is during this time that young artist,
Sahibram (fl c. 1740–1805), came to prominence as a portraitist. He continued to work for five successive rulers, painting on cloth in the same style over life-size portraits in a personal style that became standard. The Jaipur school reached its zenith under
Pratap Singh (r. 1778–1803), a poet, composer and connoisseur of painting. The workshop flourished under his attention. Among the most notable illustrated manuscripts and sets of paintings are a
Ragamala set of 43 paintings, a long
Ramayana series, a
Bhagavata Purana completed in 1792 with 366 illustrations and a
Devi Mahatmya dated 1799 with 102 miniatures. There are also many others paintings, drawings and sketches from this period.
Ragamala sets continued into the new century with an increasing lack of inspiration and Jaipur artists hardened their line and began to favor garishly colored subjects, with considerable influence from
Lucknow. Patronage of painting continued during the troubled reign of
Jagat Singh (r. 1803–18), however, after his death painters left the workshop in search of other employment.
Jagat Singh II (r. 1835–80) promoted Western art, including photography, and the Jaipur style declined. From the beginning of the 19th century, traders from the area of
Shekhawati started to spend part of their riches in constructing enormous mansions. The wall paintings decorating these structures are distinctive and show a mixture of folk and classical idioms. Tradition of this simple and vigorous style, known today as
Shekhawati painting, lived until the third decade of the 20th century.
Kulu Painting in
Kulu, one of the most remote states of the Punjab Hills, has a history dating back to at least the last quarter of the 17th century, and initially was under strong influence of Basohli style. The most important work of Kulu painting is a superb
Ramayana series of 270 paintings, known as the
Shangri Ramayana (see illustration of
Rama Bestows His Possessions on the Brahmins, His Friends, and Servants).
W.G. Archer classified those paintings into four styles and ascribed them to the period from c. 1690 to c. 1710. Scholarship is divided, however, on questions of both dating and place of production -
Goswamy and
Fischer have suggested
Bahu in Jammu and inscription on a painting in the latter part of the series (
New Delhi, N. Mus.), though not indisputably clear, indicates a date of [17]65 and mentions
Mandi. According to Goswamy and Fischer "with their flat, monochromatic backgrounds of rich, saturated yellow or sage green that leave no room for the horizon at the top, and their frenzied, convulsive energy, the paintings of the Ramayana appear to represent a closed, self-contained world. Within this world, a great deal happens: emotions pure and raw are internalized or expressed, figures and objects expand and contract while brilliant, blustering colours cast a glow over everything in sight [...] Patterns, foliage, architecture, colouring, articulation of figures, have all a logic of their own". Archer has thought that series is an offshoot of Basohli painting, but at the same time, he noticed some distinctive features of those paintings, like a lack of regard for orderly arrangement and deep sense of agitation and intensity. In the latter part of the series, compositions are more balanced and the faces of people and animals more expressive.
Shangri Ramayana shares a number of features with other works that can be assigned to Kulu at about the same period, like
Ragamala series, a
Nayikabheda series and illustrations of the Krishna legend. Paintings from c. 1710–40 "have simplified compositions and colour schemes showing a preference for mauve and blue. Common features include a willow tree with drooping branches framing a central figure, and swirling clouds with curly outlines. Paintings of the mid-18th century and later retain traits of the local style but also exhibit the influence of other centres of Pahari painting." Late 18th-century works include series of
Bhagavata Purana and two sets of the
Madhumalati painted in his individual style by the artist
Bhagwan, who worked for Raja Pritam Singh (r. 1767–1806). Little development of the regional style occurred in the 19th century.
Mankot Earliest painting in Mankot, one of the smallest of Pahari states, could be considered a local idiom of the Basohli style. In contrast, portraiture, which remained the main concern of Mankot painters until c. 1700, derived from Mughal examples under the Shah Jahan. The borders of those portraits are usually red, and the sitters are set against backgrounds of rich yellow or sage green (see illustration of
Raja Ajmat Dev) and seated on colourful floral or striped carpets, which enhance the painting's decorative effect. Works from c. 1700–20 show greater distortion, "a feature shared with Basohli painting, but the idiom is distinctively Mankot". It is in this period that Goswamy and Fischer place painter who worked on important
Bhagavata Purana series, called by them simply
Master at the Court of Mankot. According to them he excelled both in religious paintings (see illustration of
Saptarishi. The Seven Sages), as in a portraiture, which "reveal in all details astounding observation". Religious paintings from Mankot avoid intricate detail in favour of a narrow focus on the drama of the scene. At the same time artists were apparently aware of trends in painting at Basohli and Nurpur and assimilated elements from both styles. Later paintings from Mankot indicate influences from still other centres, like Bandralta, Jammu,
Jasrota or
Chamba. In works after c. 1750 "faces generally appear slightly heavier, and figures are shorter and squatter. Colours are more muted; compositions frequently employ clumps of foliage". Mankot court life was affected by
Sikhs interventions in the 18th and 19th centuries and a general decline in painting set in. In 1846 Mankot state had lost its independence.
Chamba Chamba was one of the largest states in the Punjab Hills and its sheltered location helped to preserve its distinct culture. The earliest known painting from the region is of the second quarter of the 17th century and its style is already distinct, which suggest a previous history. The figures are painted in a naturalistic manner and subdued, pale colours were generally preferred, with visible Mughal and Deccani influences. In works from the end of the 17th century, there is adoption of some elements of Basohli style. Rich, warm colours are used, and the treatment of the trees is decorative and stylized. "A peculiar idiom for modelling was used by Chamba painters: a series of fine, long lines drawn clearly and at regular intervals on garments was employed for indicating volume, especially of the arms" and it remained in practice for several decades in the 18th century. There are two broad styles of the early 18th-century Chamba painting: one "with clear indigenous figural types but exhibiting the influence of the Basohli style in other elements", and the other much closer to Basohli painting. Political disturbances during the reign of Ugar Singh (r. 1720–35) means that only a few paintings of this period survive. The reign of Umed Singh (r. 1748–64) was marked by the activity of two painters,
Laharu (d. c. 1767) and
Mahesh (fl. c. 1730–1770). Chamba was always a Vaishnva state and at this period emphasis was laid on the production of relevant illuminated manuscripts, attributed to Laharu, while Mahesh seems to have worked on painted sets of Vishnu avatars (see illustration of
Matsya, the Fish-Incarnation of Vishnu). According to Losty, "whereas Laharu's style is still rather old-fashioned, with flat, smallforms derived from earlier prototypes disposed uniformly about the surface of the painting or disposed in registers, Mahesh seems more conversant with the softened palette and enhanced spatial awareness of contemporary
Guler work". This doesn't change the fact that in general 18th-century painters from Chamba show relatively little interest in innovations on the rendering of space and volume associated with Seu-Nainsukh family (see below) Raja Raj Singh (r. 1764–1794) gave land to the painters from Seu-Nainsukh family, including Nikka, son of
Nainsukh (c. 1710–1778). From this period come distinguished group portraits made for the Raja, but with Guler painters at the court local style gradually lost vitality. In 1821 Chamba lost part of its territory to the Gurkhas of
Nepal and political decline affected painting. There are some works in Guler,
Kangra and Punjabi styles that were made in 19th-century Chamba, but its native school of painting was now extinct.
Seu-Nainsukh Family and Kangra style By 1730 there were signs of dramatic changes in
Pahari painting "as artists softened their harsh lines, changed to more muted colors and displayed a renewed interest in rendering space and volume. These changes are traditionally associated with the artists
Pandit Seu (c. 1680-1740) from Guler and his two sons
Manaku (c. 1700-1760) and
Nainsukh". The first evidence of this softening in style can be found in late works of Pandit Seu and more directly in
Gita Govinda series from c. 1730 ascribed to Manaku. Because of the vivid flat planes of color and some other traits of older style this series is sometimes associated with Basohli painting, but "work is full of details that point the way forward in the enhanced naturalism of its characters and of its landscape, traits which are further emphasized in two successive and widely dispersed Bhagavata Purana series of c. 1740 and c. 1765" (see illustration of
The Emergence of Varaha, the Boar-Incarnation of Vishnu). There is no evidence that paintings of Manaku were executed in Basohli and in general there are not many indisputable Basohli works from the early 18th century, although there is some portraiture and
Ragamala series (see illustration of
Ragaputra Velavala of Bhairava). From the reign of Amrit Pal (r. 1757–78), the style of royal portraiture changed dramatically to the naturalistic style favoured by Nainsukh, who seems to have migrated to Basohli c. 1765. His son, Ranjha, also worked for Basohli rulers, but as a centre of painting "Basohli seems to have declined rapidly from the mid-19th century; no work of any significance is associated with it after that period". The late style of Pandit Seu, adopted after him by his sons, "is variously described as ‘Guler’ (Archer) and ‘pre-Kangra’ by
Karl Khandalavala, and
M. S. Randhawa spoke of Guler as the ‘birthplace of Kangra art’; however, it is perhaps best spoken of as the Seu–Nainsukh family style". Despite all their innovations, works of Pandit Seu and Manaku evolved from earlier Basohli traditions. By contrast, mature style of Nainsukh reveal nothing of Basohli school. He spent most of his career in the service of Balwant Singh of
Jasrota (1724–1763) and in his paintings he gave an intimate portrait of his day-to-day life, using his "exceptional gifts of observation and his great skill at drawing to create an intensely, sympathetically observed world that seems still to breathe". According to Goswamy and Fischer Nainsukh's most successful artistic innovation was "his application of Mughal naturalism to details, which imparted to his work an immediacy that was unknown till then in Pahari painting"., but his treatment of space was equally original. His portraits are organized around broad architectural areas in a manner of painting from Muhammad Shah era and Nainsukh is very conscious of the need to set his naturalistic figures in a realistic spatial setting. In paintings from
Rasamanjari series by Kripal family architecture was simply a setting to coordinate the colors and shapes that might best heighten the mood of the situation. Nainsukh place his subjects in a specific buildings, constructing highly informative scenes (see illustration of
Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota examining a painting with Nainsukh). It was also Nainsukh who seems to have invented the typical Pahari landscape of a green sward dotted with trees receding to gently rounded hills and a blue sky above. Nainsukh had four sons and Manaku two, all of them painters. Sons or grandsons of Manaku and Nainsukh were eventually employed at Basohli, Chamba, Guler, Jammu and Kangra, and many additional hill states. Each of the painters had been trained initially in a common family style, derived mainly from the works of Nainsukh, "for even Manaku eventually adopted his brother's manner. This family style, therefore, spread throughout the hills, and there is no other comparably influential painter family known in either the pahari area or Rajasthan". Among the most beautiful of all Indian paintings are those from the three great manuscripts of the
Gita Govinda,
Bhagavata Purana and
Ramayana produced by sons of Manaku and Nainsukh (they are collectively known as "First generation after Manaku and Nainsukh.") In contrast to earlier Pahari paintings "now the characters in the drama are fully integrated into the landscape or architecture of their surroundings and indeed these hitherto background effects begin to take on an expressive life of their own, complementing or commenting on the action. The architectural surrounds act not as backdrops but as fully integrated parts of the story within which the drama is played out, allowing greater complexity of composition". (see illustration of ''Wedding of Krishna's Parents'') These works lead directly into the
Kangra style as patronized by
Sansar Chand (r. 1775–1823) and it is possible that they were commissioned to mark his marriage in 1780–1781 to a princess of Suket. The grandsons of Manaku and Nainsukh ("second generation") "continue the family tradition of painting such works whether for Kangra patrons or elsewhere. The texts illustrated by their fathers are done again in slightly drier styles, while others such as the
Devimahatmya and various
Shaiva texts were added to the repertoire. Despite their familiarity with the earlier compositions, there is no loss of vivid imagination". Although competent work continued to be done by later descendants of Pandit Seu until the end of the century, "the freshness went out of the style, which often lapsed into sentimentality and dull repetition". Kangra style, which has its origin in painting of Seu-Nainsukh family, dominate entire landscape of Pahari painting, with only few exceptions. In Mandi under Shamsher Sen (r. 1727–1781) traditional elements of Rajput painting, like flat planes of color and disproportion between figures, becomes more exposed. There was also little attention to spatial representation and modeling was restricted to heavy shading. But the most important artist at the court of Ishwari Sen (r. 1788–1826),
Sajnu, was a painter from Guler who worked generally in the style of the "second generation". Another important painter outside the Seu-Nainsukh family who worked in the Kangra style was
Purkhu (fl c. 1790–1820), the chief portraitist of Sansar Chand. With the
Sikh invasion of Kangra in 1812, many Pahari artists migrated to the court of
Ranjit Singh (r. 1801–1839) where they were instrumental in forming a distinctive Sikh style of painting.
Garhwal The beginning of painting in
Garhwal, located to the extreme south-east of the Punjab Hills, is associated with a person of
Mola Ram (c. 1750–1833). Poet and painter, he claimed to be a descendant of one of the two Mughal painters who come to
Srinagar in 1658 (no work by these artists has survived). Mola Ram himself worked in Mughal and later "rather stiff and clumsy version of the Kangra style". Among Garhwal's finest paintings is a group of works from the second half of the 18th century, including
Shiva watches Parvati Sleep in
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (see illustration). Many scholars have attributed these to outside artists whose presence in Garhwal is confirmed by Mola Ram. This and some stylistic affinities between Garhwal and Guler painting "suggest that Guler painters settled in Garhwal. Opinion, however, is divided; scholars have suggested alternatively that artist from Pahari centres other than Guler migrated to Garhwal, that Garhwal painters travelled to other Pahari centres for apprenticeship or that Garhwal style was developed independently by local artists". Yet despite all influences of Guler and other centres of Pahari painting Garhwal works have their own distinct individuality. For example, landscape contain elements of the local environment, like large tree with leafless branches. Women are rendered with sinuous graceful figures, sharp facial features and slender wrists and fingers. The use of Shaivite crescent-shaped marks on foreheads was a common and consistent feature at Garhwal. The master who created the poetical Garhwal works of the period 1765-1790 have no familial links to the descendants of Pandit Seu Srinagar was severely damaged by an earthquake in 1802, and Garhwal was occupied by the Gurkhas of Nepal the following year. They remained in power until 1815, when they were driven out by the British, who annexed the southern part of the state. When Sudarshan Shah (r. 1815–59), moved in 1816 to the new capital,
Tehri, artists again assembled there. The basic traits of Garhwal are present in their works, but the sophistication of the compositions and panoramic landscapes of earlier paintings is greatly simplified. With a few exceptions, the work shows a gradual decline. Excellent works were produced, however, by the painter
Chetu (Chaitu; fl c. 1830–c. 1860) and other artists from Guler/Kangra who worked for the Tehri–Garhwal court during this period. Their works "are characterized by fluid female figures, but instead of the luxuriant landscapes for which Garhwal painting is famous, sparse compositions with blob-like trees are typical." Later painting activity in Garhwal concentrated on "crude versions of old paintings" and "no new style had developed". File:Matsya, the Fish-Incarnation of Vishnu.jpg|
Matsya, the Fish-Incarnation of Vishnu, Folio from a
Dashavatara series ascribed to
Mahesh of Chamba.
Chamba, c. 1725–1750.
Bhuri Singh Museum. File:Ragini Madhumadhavi - Girl flees from a storm.jpg|
Ragini Madhumadhavi, by Jay Krishna.
Malpura, c. 1756. Rietberg Museum. File:Bikaner Artist.jpg|Artist at work. Bikaner, c. 1780–1790. National Museum, New Delhi. File:A pensive nayika with her sakhi (6124590293).jpg|
A pensive nayika with her sakhi by
Sajnu of Mandi, Folio from a
Rasikapriya series. Mandi, c. 1820. San Diego Museum of Art. File:Three Aspects of The Absolute.jpg|
Three Aspects of The Absolute, miniature by
Bulaki from the manuscript of
Shri Nath Charit, definitive text of the
Nath yogis.
Jodhpur, 1823.
Mehrangarh Museum Trust. == End of Rajput painting ==