The outcome of the
Chin-Lushai Expedition saw the region subdivided into two sections. The North Lushai hills were administered by a political officer stationed at Fort
Aijal under the
Assam Government. The South Lushai Hills were under the administration of a political officer stationed at Fort Treager. This political officer reported to the commissioner of Chittagong who was under the
Bengal Government.
Lushai Rising Paramilitary units were established to pacify the recently conquered tribes effectively in unfamiliar terrain. The North Lushai battalion was founded for this reason, and by 1898, the strength of civil and military police in North and South Lushai came to about 1106 personnel. The British also began to invest into local infrastructure to improve the army and police's ability to curb insurgency and raiding. Roads between
Sairang-
Silchar were constructed and another connecting
Aijal to
Serchhip. Bridges across rivers were also constructed to improve mobility during monsoons and rainy reasons. The total expenditure for public works amounted to Rs 80,000.
Early Institutions The British administration set up schools imparting literacy to both sepoys and young individuals of both genders from the Lushai tribes. By 1900, there were three government schools and one mission school. These schools operated with the Lushai language and taught arithmetic, Hindi and English. 45 villages out of 93 in Aizawl had the light of literacy with British support. Initial intentions for education was to instruct in
Bengali but this proposal was deflected by Welsh missionaries who saw the parallels of Bengali imposition in Lushai Hills to English imposition in Wales. Medical infrastructure was also established to maintain the health of soldiers. This service extended to the civilian population with free medical provisions that affected the image of the Raj in the tribes. In 1896, the British constructed a big hospital in Aizawl and medicines were distributed freely to the chiefs. The conduct of the British in the Lushai hills functioned parallel to a
welfare state. The recommendation ultimately reached the Viceroy
Landsdowne. While Landsdowne favoured the recommendation, the council was evenly split. The opposition of the former Chief Commissioner of Burma
Charles Crosthwaite with knowledge of the Chin-Lushai tracts worded a strong argument against the district's creation. A decision was made on 2 August 1892 in a telegraph to the Chief Commissioner of Rangoon, stating that the Chin Hills would remain under Burma. The legacy of this decision was finalized in the 1937 split of Burma and India under the
Government of India Act 1935, which established an international boundary between the two countries, splitting the Chin-Lushai tribes. Commandant of the Military Police, Captain
Granville Henry Loch, with a Khasi contractor, expanded the settlement. Loch was a soldier but possessed experience as an engineer. Loch trained his own men in quarrying and shaping stone. He used sepoys in greater numbers and instructed them in
masonry,
carpentry and roadmaking. This initiative lent his battalion a reputation as a pioneer instead of an ordinary infantry unit. Within the span of a few years, Loch had removed the improvised structures and abandoned village remnants into a station of well-constructed stone houses with corrugated iron roofs, proper doors and windows.
Christianity On 11 January 1894, the first missionaries entered the Lushai Hills, known as James H. Lorrain and Frederick W. Savidge. It took both missionaries five years to baptise their first two converts. The meagre gain from their efforts convinced
Robert Arthington, the patron of the Arthington Aborigines Mission, to move to the next hill tribe. Before the departure of Lorrain and Savidge, D. E Jones, a missionary under the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist mission, joined them. Jones struggled with obtaining results from his efforts, and many of his converts would be expelled shortly after being received into communion. His later converts would also leave on their own volition in 1904–1905. In seven years, the 1901 census recorded 45 Christians amid a population of 82,000, and only five were baptized church members.
Boundary developments In 1900, the boundary demarcating Manipur and the Lushai Hills was reconsidered with a boundary commission led by P. Maxwell and A.W. Cole. The commission engaged in field work and surveying from 22 January to 9 February 1900. Maxwell demarcated the boundary by stating that it begins at the junction of the Tuivai and Barak and continues to follow the Tuivai around several prominent landmarks. The government approved Maxwell's boundary line which remained unchanged even under Indian rule. In 1901, the Chin-Lushai boundary was considered following the completion of the Manipur-Lushai border. A boundary commission was established which demarcated the Tupui and Tuaisai stream following the latter into the Tuimang and Bopuilui until the source of the Tyao river. In 1903, Chief Commissioner
Bampfylde Fuller declared the 1875 boundary was vague and insufficient in demarcation. This was observed as Lushai tribes began to migrate north and Cacharis moved south, leading to disputes over the territory and land of the two districts. Commissioner Fuller advocated for a revision and scientific demarcation via a transfer from the Cachar district to the Lushai Hills which contained Lushai villages. The tract in dispute was a resort for Lushai communities who disliked their chiefs and escaped beyond the control of the superintendent of the Lushai Hills. Fuller commissioned the boundary to cover running north from Chatter Chura down the Bhagsurra stream to the junction of the tlawng river and another boundary running south from the east side of the range into a stream that joined into the tlawng river. This boundary would trade both Cachar and Lushai land. The Governor General in council approved the transfer in 1904.
Mautam Famine The mautam famine struck the Lushai Hills in 1911, which was approximately 30 years after the previous mautam famine in 1882. The harvests of 1909-1910 were exceptional due to well-distributed rainfall and benefitted Aizawl the most. However, in 1911, the Bamboo flowered, and rats began to proliferate in population as early as March. By June 1912, crops such as maize and millet were destroyed by rats shortly before ripening. The lack of infrastructure, such as a railway to transport rice aid, and the lack of markets in the Lushai Hills meant access to rice would take a journey of a few days, provided one could afford to do so. The British government in the Lushai Hills employed two policies to combat the onset of the Mautam famine. The first policy aimed at reducing the invasive rat population by announcing incentives for killing rats. Up to 179,015 rat tails were produced for the government as a result. The second policy was to distribute food relief. This was decided as the Lushai Hills lacked any local markets to purchase rice from. The government allocated 585,000 rupees and ordered rice from independent merchants and shopkeepers to transport them from Sairang to Aizawl and Demagiri to Lunglei. Food grains were issued to the needy on the condition of repayment with interest. This was difficult due to the lack of monetization of the economy at the time. To deal with this phenomenon, the British resorted to forced labour. Labourers were pooled from several villages to work on expanding Aizawl as a city by building roads, bungalows, offices and water storage tanks to combat water scarcity. Even if an individual had not taken a loan personally for food relief, they would become obligated to participate in forced labour to pay off another's debt. In retaliation, some villages and chiefs moved out of the Lushai Hills. Dokhuma Sailo moved his village to Tripura, and Hrangvunga Sailo also moved 200 families under him out of the territory to Tripura. Famine relief also saw missionaries and the early church volunteering to distribute aid and food relief from stockade depots. Missionaries would also help sign loan papers as guarantors so individuals could receive the rice aid. The fallout of the famine saw the church take on the role of medical relief for the cholera outbreaks, taking in orphans and the destitute. The operations were funded by the Lushai Famine Funds mission directors and other donors. The efforts of the missionaries also saw the growth of Christianity. In 1912, up to 80 villages had churches and 1,800 converts in total.
World War One The outbreak of World War One saw few Mizo men take the initiative to enlist, with numbers of enlistment increasing with the despisement of those who would not volunteer by courtships and belles of the villages. In April 1917, 2100 Lushai Men marched out in the 27th Indian Labour Corps under four companies. Initially many elderly men and women strongly opposed allowing their children to be sent to the war front. They suspected that the British would put them in the line of fire under the pretext of working as auxiliaries. The British announced the exemption of all volunteers to the impressed labour
coolie quota to avoid unpaid labour. Some Chiefs sent forward villagers who were considered less worthy. Other entitlements such as a lifetime exemption from an annual housing tax, coolie labour quotas and an ability to tour abroad also proved popular for Lushai manpower. Missionary and government publications also propagandized the opportunity to fight abroad. Further recruitment initiatives were halted due to the
Kuki Uprising in the bordering regions against continued recruitment. The Royal chiefs helped in gathering volunteers. Dohleia the son of Chief Khamliana made a rigorous campaign and volunteered to go to France as an example. A dozen Mizos joined the St John Ambulance Corps and the Army Bearer Corps. Lorrain noted that wil many volunteers showed interest, the height restriction for enlistment filtered out many volunteers for qualification. A Labour Battalion of 2100 men volunteered and assembled at the Assam Rifle's Ground at Aizawl on 25 April 1917. Since the Mizo people never saw such a large gathering, they assumed they would inflict heavy casualties on the Germans. The Mizos marched to Silchar and boarded the train to Calcutta, and experienced tunnels and iron bridges. They took another train from Calcutta to Bombay. From Bombay, they voyaged on the Red Sea and reached France in June 1917. The Corps was deployed in
Marseille as La Valentine camp. The camp was built up with a canteen and a cinema over time. Labour Corps were also often accompanied by missionaries, for the Lushai Labour Corps, Reverend
James Herbert Lorrain accompanied them. The Mios main responsibilities were to dismantle deserted trenches and dugouts and send wooden planks to reuse in new battlegrounds. Superintendent W.L. Scott comments that the Mizos accustomed fast to the climate and would finish their job faster than others. being close to the firing line, the Mizo camp was shelled and sometimes bombed but the Mizos were described as "steady and never alarmed". The Mizos went through a cold icy winter but continued to provide great results of their labour. Lorrain reported that during the
Hundred Days Offensive in March 1918, the Mizos worked so well under fire they earned special commendation for withdrawing from the danger zone without any casualties. The
Church in Wales regularly sent parcels and gifts to the Mizos.
D.E. Jones sailed with the Lushai labour corps as chaplain and translator and given the rank of honorary captain. Lorrain, at the behest of the
YMCA, worked in France for four months. Superintendent H.A.C. Colquhoun published in the
Mizo leh Vai journal to help the British government by buying
war bonds or depositing postal savings. Chief Khamliana contributed towards the war effort. The contracts to the Labour Corps personnel were made under one-year contracts, which timed out before the end of the war. Attempts to extend the term of contractual obligations were unsuccessful and led to many returning home.
Academic Development The middle schools in Aizawl and Lungleh had begun to fail to satisfy the Lushais in pursuit of higher education. The demand emerged shortly after World War One but was not acted upon by superintendents who felt it lacked justification despite the encouragement of the Welsh Mission. In 1929 the Welsh Mission sent an official request to the superintendent for a high school which was refused by the administration. In 1931 the chiefs submitted a joint representation the Commissioner of Surma Valley, Hezlett. Hezlett was of the opinion that a high school would produce more educated Lushais than jobs can be distributed in the Lushai Hills. As a result, higher education was not prioritised until A.R.H MacDonald would become superintendent. As a result of this decision, the wealthy Lushai families sent their children outside the district to pursue higher studies. The exposure to other organizations led to the need for a Lushai organisation to pressure the government on various areas of improvement. In October 1924, the Lushai Student's Association was founded in Shillong with branches in Calcutta and Gauhati. The Lushai Students Association held a conference at Shillong in the same month where Bucchawna was assigned the dual post of general secretary and treasurer. The Calcutta branch consisted of Dahrawka, Kailuia Sailo and Sangkunga. The Gauhati branch consisted of Durra, Chongthu and Buchhawna Khiangte. The Shillong branch was the largest with the most notable member being Thanglura.
McCall's Developments of the Lushai Hills Superintendent McCall was the administrator of the Lushai Hills district from 1933 to 1943. His administration saw four major innovations in the Lushai Hills. These were the Ten Point Code, the Welfare System under the aegis of the Red Cross, the Lushai Hills Cottage Industries and the inauguration of the Chief's Durbar. These innovations were introduced to unify the Lushai identity and to support Governor of Assam Robert Reid's vision of transforming the excluded tribal zones into a separate Crown Colony. Reid's plan received considerable political interest but was dropped at the onset of World War Two. The Ten Point Code was established and taught in schools to children. The purpose was to cultivate Lushai identity for potential nationhood and preservation of Mizo culture and customs. The code was also implemented into choirs, poetry and song. The welfare committees in villages also recite two points of the code every monthly meeting. The code was also intended to remedy traits of Lushai culture that were backward and incohesive for a national identity. The rationale for implementing the Village Welfare System was twofold. The first reason was that it was an egalitarian way of bringing people together socially on the subject of health. The second reason was to encourage the Chiefs to cooperate on an uncontroversial matter. The stipulation held legitimacy by allowing the villages to join the welfare system voluntarily but being obligated to follow the rules upon joining. Village welfare was introduced due to the fact that only 3% of the Lushai population had access to permanent contact to amenities. The civil surgeon was in charge of the village welfare system, who oversaw all matters of public health and living conditions for the benefit of the villagers. The village welfare committees function under the guidance of the
Red Cross district committee in Aizawl. All committee decision-making was unanimous and implemented by the villagers in religious, social, and technical harmony. All welfare committees have the village chief as president, leaders of the church and school, pensioners, and two village women and two village men in membership. The Lushai Hills Cotton Industry initiative was too risky for government funds and was privately financed by McCall and his wife, who formed as a joint organizer and managing director of the venture to cultivate craftsmanship and broader market opportunities to export loom products. The British policy of diminishing chieftain power by granting chieftain rights to collaborators and other individuals increased the number of chiefs from 60 to 400 in the 1890s to the 1930s. The large number of chiefs required a system of coordination and consultation. This led to the creation of the District Chief's Durbar. Each Chief will ascend to the durbar by signing a document affirming loyalty to the British Crown and the Lushai people. The durbar was designed for chiefs to become responsible for studying the conditions and lives of people under their jurisdiction and to unify the Chiefs in looking after the wellbeing of the Lushai people in general. The Durbar was assigned to meet twice yearly at a convenient meeting place for all chief circles. It would last seven to ten days and, in an advisory capacity, make decisions offered to the superintendent.
Young Lushai Association The liberal and progressive nature of A.G McCall led to the development of Lushai community organizations. The increase in education and the influence of the
Young Men's Buddhist Association in Burma led to the creation of the Young Lushai Organization on 4 June 1935. The YLA was not a political organization but a cultural one. It was originally consisting of the sons of chiefs before becoming populated with commoners. The organization developed a view against the institution of
Lushai chieftainship which would influence its members who would go on to found the
Mizo Union on the same policy and ideology such as
Vanlawma.
World War Two In April 1942, the
Imperial Japanese Army had
occupied much of
Colony of Burma and pushed the British back into the Northeastern Regions of India. Superintendent of the Lushai Hills, Major Anthony Gilchrist McCall, brought 300 tribal chiefs and asked them to join in a voluntary bond with the British Crown and to sign a promise to join in a "Total Defence Scheme" (TDS) of the area. McCall was recalled under protest by the Governor of Assam
Andrew Clow in May 1943, his position being transferred to
Shillong instead. However, in his absence, the Total Defence Scheme was held throughout the war. McCall argued that without loyalty to the British, the TDS would collapse and that the Lushai Hills would not resist Japanese occupation if the British military were to retreat as they did in
British Malaya,
Singapore and
Colony of Brunei. The Total Defence Scheme involved
guerilla warfare, strategic abandonment of villages,
scorched earth tactics with denial of food and water,
booby traps, destruction of bridges and exclusive information supplied to British authorities. McCall explicitly states to Chiefs to arm the bravest with guns and rifles and not directly confront enemies but to rely on knowledge of the terrain for effective
ambush tactics. The Total Defence Scheme functioned on an
asymmetrical warfare doctrine as a result. McCall's scheme was made in mind that tribal people did not possess up-to-date arms, were not professionally trained in military affairs and lacked vital
air support and
reconnaissance in comparison with the Japanese. The Lushai tribesmen were trained by Australian military personnel, such as Colonel Percival Augustus Parsons, in guerilla warfare. The scheme was successful as the Japanese retreated from the borderlands of India in late 1944. The Japanese had occupied the villages of Darkhai, Khuangpah and Teikhang on the Lushai border in Burma. This prompted the settlements of Champhai, Biate, Darzo, Hnahlan, Khuangpah, Pawlrang, Samthang, Sawleng, Tipaimukh, Thingsai, Tuisenhnar and Vanlaipai to establish
Pasalṭha pawl. Corps of the Lushai Scouts known as
Biate Sipai were raised to support this with 300 raised in Biate alone. In total, 3000 youths had joined the military forces. The importance of the Lushai Hills as a frontier for the Japanese invasion of India led to military investments. As a result, Aizawl, Kolasib, Lunglei and Tlabung became vital supply bases. Zorema also argues that the exposure to foreign troops and the investments in military infrastructure opened up the Lushais to a politically conscious future. In 1944, the British formed the Lushai Scouts. The task was given to Major Jack Longbottom. He was instructed to raise a regiment of scouts consisting of 400 men. The Japanese had already pushed into Tidim in the Chin Hills and were battling in
Kohima and
Imphal. The Lushai Scouts were placed under "V" Force to be used as guerillas but trained and raised as regular troops. The scouts were specialised into jungle warfare on mobility and minimum transport. Major Longbottom travelled to Aizawl before reaching Biate on the frontier of the Chin Hills. In March 1944 the unit was agreed to be formed from the General Headquarters in Delhi. Most of the scouts consisted of 18-20-year-old men. They were assigned patrol exercises in the Chin Hills and improvised in making bridges to cross the Tui river in order to maintain patrol timings. The scouts committed small raids on the Japanese on the main Tiddim road. On 7–8 September, the scouts would march 15 miles through jungles in between two Japanese artillery companies with a platoon post. At dawn the outpost was attacked with noc casualties from the scouts. The Japanese retaliated with a stronger platoon in Saizang. Two Lushai scouts speaking
Chin disguised themselves as vegetable merchants and supplied information on the platoon and sentries. An attack later carried was successful with only four wounded. The Scouts later occupied Kennedy Peak and cooperated with the Free Chin Resistance fighters to overrun a platoon. After the war, the Lushai Scouts were disbanded in Shillong. It recorded 51 encounters with the enemy with the casualty of a British officers and two other ranksand 23 wounded. Major J Longbottom was given a certificate signed by Chief Lalkhama of Darzo with the national garment
Puanchei and bag (Iptechei).
Report of the Bordoloi Sub-Committee Report of the Bordoloi Sub-Committee was submitted on 28 July 1947. It recommended for the formation of an autonomous district council for the Lushai Hills District. The council would be between 20 and 40 members and elected on the basis of adult franchise. The council would be empowered to form and enforce their own laws within their jurisdiction. The council furthermore was granted oversight on the institutions of
chieftainship such as inheritance, succession and customary laws. The report further supported the creation of the Pawi-Lakher Regional Council in the southern area of the Lushai Hills.
L.L. Peters After the departure of A.R.H. MacDonald, D.A. Penn became superintendent for a short period before Leonard Lamb Peters was assigned. Peters held a meeting on 14 August 1947 to discuss the options for the future of Lushai Hills, whether to remain with India, join Burma, or become independent. Amajority of the delegates at the meeting supported a union with India based on the belief that a guarantee can be maintained on the maintenance of existing safeguards on their customary laws and land rights. The meeting also oversaw a memorandum that allowed the Lushai Hills to opt out of the Indian Union in ten years based on a referendum. The assurance of the maintenance of the Chin Hills Regulation of 1896 and the Bengal Western Frontier Regulation of 1873 were maintained to preserve the Mizo identity.
Indian Independence Plans had been made for the independence parade. The Mizo Union sought to carry out a celebration but were opposed by dissidents who supported independence namely the Mizo Union under Pachhunga. The Mizo Union branch of Dawrpui strongly opposed the celebration. Vanlawma wrote a letter to Khawtinkhuma to cease plans for the procession. A further notice was sent by the faction to Peters to inform him not to hoist the tricolour flag. The Mizo Union Dawrpui branch held a meeting with Christian hymns and prayers and sang of mobilising weapons to march. The group opposed the idea of a Christian people becoming part of a Hindu majority nation. Guns, grenades were collected to prevent the procession from happening. The matter continued to escalate until the Mizo Union president, Khatinkhuma, threatened to resign if the procession continued. The Indian flag was not hoisted openly out of fear of conflict. Three volunteers were stationed outside Superintendent Peter's bungalow ready to take down the Indian flag if he hoisted it. However, Peters stated that there was no flag to hoist. On the other hand, a farewell to the British was given in Dawrpui in Aizawl which hosted a large crowd. The Lushai Hills was succeeded as the
autonomous Lushai Hills district of Assam. ==Economy==