Jainism is a religion founded in
ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four
tirthankaras and revere
Rishabhanatha as the first
tirthankara (in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the
Indus River Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two
tirthankaras, the 23rd
tirthankara Parshvanatha (c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th
tirthankara Mahavira (c. 599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the
Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd
Tirthankara Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of
Krishna.
Origins: Parshvanatha and Mahavira Jainism is an ancient
Indian religion of obscure origins. Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first
tirthankara Rishabhanatha as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle. It is one of the
Śramaṇa traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the
Vedas, and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed. The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars as
historical figures. The 23rd Tirthankara,
Parshvanatha, was likely a historical being, dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE; historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE. Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jain
ascetic community which subsequently got revived and reformed by
Mahavira. Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE. The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha; later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them. Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines. Kings
Bimbisara (–491 BCE),
Ajatashatru (–460 BCE), and
Udayin (–440 BCE) of the
Haryanka dynasty were patrons of Jainism. Jain tradition states that
Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of the
Mauryan Empire and grandfather of
Ashoka, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic
Bhadrabahu in the later part of his life. Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.
Epigraphic and archaeological evidence The historicity of Jainism is supported by epigraphic and archaeological evidence. The
Hathigumpha Inscription at the
Udayagiri Caves in Odisha, dated to the 2nd century BCE, is a key piece of early evidence. This inscription, from King
Kharavela of
Kalinga, details his patronage of Jain monks. It also provides a historical reference by mentioning the retrieval of a Jina idol taken from Kalinga by a
Nanda dynasty king (c. 4th century BCE). Additionally, excavations at
Kankali Tila in
Mathura have provided extensive archaeological evidence of an early Jain center. The site yielded numerous Jain stupas, statues, and
ayagapatas (votive tablets) dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE. These tablets, commissioned by lay followers (
śrāvakas), represent early physical evidence of an organized
sangha (community) that included monks, nuns, and laity. The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the
Niganthas (Jains).
Tirthankara statues date back to the second century BCE. Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards. Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara. There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE. File:Photo of lord adinath bhagwan at kundalpur.JPG|
Rishabhdev, believed to have lived over 592.704×1018 years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism. File:Ashoka Pillar at Feroze Shah Kotla, Delhi 03.JPG|Jain inscription of
Ashoka () File:Shrine with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira) LACMA M.85.55 (1 of 4).jpg|
Chaumukha Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira),
LACMA, sixth century File:Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg|
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves built by
King Kharavela of
Mahameghavahana dynasty in second century CE File:La grotte Jain Indra Sabha Ellora Caves, India.jpg|The Indra Sabha cave at the
Ellora Caves are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments. File:Kazhugumalai_Jain_beds_(8).jpg|Kazhugumalai Jain beds
Sects and traditions The Jain community is divided into two major
denominations,
Digambara and
Śvētāmbara. This schism is ancient and centers on differing monastic disciplines, canonical scriptures, and core doctrines (such as the liberation of women). • The
Digambara (sky-clad) tradition holds that male monks must renounce all possessions, including clothes, to practice
achailakya (nudity). Female monastics, known as
Aryikas, wear unstitched plain white
sarees. • The
Śvētāmbara (white-clad) tradition holds that monastics, both male and female, may wear simple, seamless white robes (
sachailakya).
The Great Schism: traditional accounts The
Digambara tradition places the origin of the schism around the 4th century BCE. According to their account,
Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year famine in
Magadha and led a migration of monks to
Karnataka.
Sthulabhadra, a pupil, remained behind with other monks. The Digambara tradition holds that Sthulabhadra's northern group relaxed the original practice of nudity and began wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the returning monks who had preserved the
mūla sangha (original community). In this view, the
Digambaras preserved the original
achailakya (nude) practice of Mahavira, while the
Svetambaras adopted a more lax, clothed practice. The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit
Suttapahuda of
Kundakunda. The
Svetambara tradition, in texts like the
Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya (5th cent. CE), places the schism much later. Their account states the
Digambara sect arose 609 years after Mahavira's
nirvana (c. 1st-2nd cent. CE), founded by a monk named
Sivabhuti. The narrative states that Sivabhuti, in a "fit of pique," adopted nudity, which his original tradition rejected. Svetambara texts accuse this new sect of "eight concealments," including the rejection of the canonical texts preserved by their tradition and the new doctrine that women could not attain liberation. The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as
Mandirmargis, and
Sthānakavasī.
Scholarly analysis and solidification Most modern scholars, such as Padmanabh Jaini and Paul Dundas, conclude that the schism was not a single "event" but a gradual hardening of differences over several centuries. Monastic nudity and the wearing of robes likely co-existed as acceptable monastic options for some time. Archaeological evidence from Mathura, for instance, shows nude
tirthankara images from the
Kushan Empire (c. 1st century CE). The definitive, formal split is often associated with the
Council of Vallabhi in the 5th century CE. This council was organized by the
Svetambara tradition to formally codify their canonical scriptures (the
Agamas). The
Digambara tradition, which had its own (and different) scriptural canon, did not attend and rejected the authenticity of these texts, solidifying the schism.
Key doctrinal and practical differences Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code, interpretations of teachings, and on Jain history especially concerning the
tirthankaras. Their monasticism rules differ, as does their
iconography. Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants, where Digambara has mostly had male monks and considers males closest to the soul's liberation. The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism and state that the 19th
Tirthankara Māllīnātha was female, which Digambara rejects. Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing. Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart
Śvetāmbara Jains
criticize Digambara sect's practices of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation. Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the
Kushan Empire (c.1st century CE).
Tirthankara represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the
Ardhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts. The
Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the
Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs. In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.
Medieval patronage and decline Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism. In the second half of the first century CE,
Hindu kings of the
Rashtrakuta dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples. King
Harshavardhana of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism. The Pallava King
Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism. His work
Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics. The
Yadava dynasty built many temples at the
Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE. King
Āma of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.
Mularaja (10th century CE), the founder of the
Chalukya dynasty, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain. During the 11th century,
Basava, a minister to the Jain
Kalachuri king
Bijjala, converted many Jains to the
Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use. The
Hoysala King
Vishnuvardhana (–1152 CE) became a
Vaishnavite under the influence of
Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka. in
Nagarparkar, Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947 One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat,
Alp Khan permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.
Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars. The
Mughal emperors in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under
Humayun (1540–1556),
Akbar (1556–1605),
Jahangir (1605–1627) and even
Aurangzeb (1658–1707). Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains.
Babur (1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in
Gwalior. In 1567, Akbar
ravaged the fort of Chittor. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor. Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under
Jahangir,
Shah Jahan and most notably under
Aurangzeb. The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.
Colonial era , who represented Jainism at the
Parliament of the World's Religions in
Chicago in 1893 at
Dharampur,
Valsad A Gujarati Jain scholar,
Virchand Gandhi, represented Jainism at the first
World Parliament of Religions in 1893, held in America during the
Chicago World's Fair. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.
Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, poet and philosopher from
Gujarat is believed to have attained
jatismaran gnana (ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions. He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi. Shrimad Rajchandra composed
Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours. He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul: • Self (soul) exists • It is permanent and eternal • It is the doer of its own actions • It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions • Liberation exists • There is a path to achieve liberation. Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion. Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as
Champat Rai Jain defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists. Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious. These criticisms, states
John E. Cort, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity. The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks. The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya
Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces. Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the
British Raj and prompted their discontinuance. The laws were abolished by India after independence.
Modern era The texts attributed to
Kundakunda inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with his notion of
two truths and his emphasis on direct insight into
niścayanaya or 'ultimate perspective', also called "supreme" (
paramārtha) and "pure" (śuddha).
Shrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901) was a
Jain poet and mystic who was inspired by works of
Kundakunda and
Digambara mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition, his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neither
Śvetāmbara nor
Digambara, and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred as
Raj Bhakta Marg,
Kavipanth, or
Shrimadiya, which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself. His teachings influenced
Kanji Swami,
Dada Bhagwan,
Rakesh Jhaveri (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission),
Saubhagbhai,
Lalluji Maharaj (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. Kanji Panth is a lay movement founded by
Kanji Swami (1890-1980). Nominally it belongs to the
Śvetāmbara but is inspired by Kundakunda and
Shrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901), though "lacking a place in any Digambara ascetic lineage descending from Kundakunda." Kanji Swami has many followers in the Jain diaspora. They generally regard themselves simply as Digambara Jains, more popularly known as
Mumukshu, following the mystical tradition of Kundakunda and Pandit Todarmal. Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas." The
Akram Vignan Movement established by
Dada Bhagwan draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures, though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu
syncretistic movement. Greatly influenced by
Shrimad Rajchandra, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence,
Mahatma Gandhi stated regarding Jainism:
Chandanaji became the first Jain woman to receive the title of
Acharya in 1987. ==Practices==