Africa In addition to the mummies of Egypt, there have been instances of mummies being discovered in other areas of the
African continent. The bodies show a mix of anthropogenic and spontaneous mummification, with some being thousands of years old.
Canary Islands (
Tenerife,
Spain). The mummies of the
Canary Islands belong to the
indigenous Guanche people and date to the time before 14th-century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community. The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the ancient Egyptians, involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration.
Libya The mummified remains of an infant were discovered during an expedition by archaeologist
Fabrizio Mori to
Libya during the winter of 1958–1959 in the natural cave structure of
Uan Muhuggiag. After curious deposits and cave paintings were discovered on the surfaces of the cave, expedition leaders decided to excavate. Uncovered alongside fragmented animal bone tools was the mummified body of an infant, wrapped in animal skin and wearing a necklace made of ostrich egg shell beads. Professor Tongiorgi of the University of Pisa radiocarbon-dated the infant to between 5,000 and 8,000 years old. A long incision located on the right abdominal wall, and the absence of internal organs, indicated that the body had been eviscerated
post-mortem, possibly in an effort to preserve the remains. A bundle of herbs found within the body cavity also supported this conclusion. Further research revealed that the child had been around 30 months old at the time of death, though sex could not be determined due to poor preservation of the sex organs.
South Africa The first mummy to be discovered in
South Africa was found in the
Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area by Dr.
Johan Binneman in 1999. Nicknamed Moses, the mummy was estimated to be around 2,000 years old.
Asia The mummies of Asia are usually considered to be accidental. The decedents were buried in just the right place where the environment could act as an agent for preservation. This is particularly common in the desert areas of the Tarim Basin and Iran. Mummies have been discovered in more humid Asian climates; however, these are subject to rapid decay after being removed from the grave.
China . Mummies from various
dynasties throughout
China's history have been discovered in several locations across the country. They are almost exclusively considered to be unintentional mummifications. Many areas in which mummies have been uncovered are difficult for preservation, due to their warm, moist climates. This makes the recovery of mummies a challenge, as exposure to the outside world can cause the bodies to decay in a matter of hours. An example of a Chinese mummy that was preserved despite being buried in an environment not conducive to mummification is
Xin Zhui. Also known as Lady Dai, she was discovered in the early 1970s at the
Mawangdui archaeological site in
Changsha. She was the wife of the Marquis of Dai during the
Han dynasty, who was also buried with her alongside another young man often considered to be a very close relative. However, Xin Zhui's body was the only one of the three to be mummified. Her corpse was so well-preserved that surgeons from the Hunan Provincial Medical Institute were able to perform an autopsy. Among the mummies discovered in China are those termed
Tarim mummies because of their discovery in the
Tarim Basin. The dry desert climate of the basin proved to be an excellent agent for desiccation. For this reason, over 200 Tarim mummies, which are over 4,000 years old, were excavated from a cemetery in the present-day
Xinjiang region. The mummies were found buried in upside-down boats with hundreds of 13-foot-long wooden poles in the place of tombstones. shows that the mummies had
Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA) characteristic of western Eurasia in the area of
East-Central Europe,
Central Asia and the
Indus Valley. This has created a stir in the
Turkic-speaking Uighur population of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture, while it was not until the 10th century that Uighurs are said by scholars to have moved to the region from Central Asia. American Sinologist
Victor H. Mair claims that "
the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid" with "east Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago", while Mair also notes that it was not until 842 that the Uighur peoples settled in the area. Other mummified remains have been recovered from around the Tarim Basin at sites including
Qäwrighul,
Yanghai,
Shengjindian, Shanpula (Sampul), Zaghunluq, and Qizilchoqa.
Iran As of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwestern
Iran. Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known as
Saltmen.
Carbon-14 testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BC. Later
isotopic research on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine. It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners.
Korea Mummies have been discovered in Korea that have been dated to around the 15th to 19th centuries, during the
Joseon period. This is thought to be because of the rise of
Neo-Confucianism in Korea, which prescribed certain burial practices that created conditions favorable to mummification. However, this mummification was likely unintentional, and even culturally seen as ominous and undesirable. Mummification likely occurred due to a number of factors. One such factor was the airtight seal (especially as the Korean climate is unfavorable to mummification) around the bodies, which was achieved using a mix of
lime, clay, and sand. Recreations of the sealing process found that chemical reactions with the lime possibly caused a high and prolonged release of heat, which killed bacteria in the bodies.
Siberia In 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr.
Natalia Polosmak discovered the
Siberian Ice Maiden, a
Scytho-Siberian woman, on the
Ukok Plateau in the
Altai Mountains near the Mongolian border. The mummy was naturally frozen due to the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe. Also known as Princess Ukok, the mummy was dressed in finely detailed clothing and wore an elaborate headdress and jewelry. Alongside her body were buried six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey. Her left arm and hand were tattooed with
animal style figures, including a highly stylized
deer. Another Siberian mummy, a man, was discovered much earlier in 1929. His skin was also marked with tattoos of two monsters resembling
griffins, which decorated his chest, and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm. Some of the best-preserved mummies have come from bogs located across the region. The Capuchin monks that inhabited the area left behind hundreds of intentionally-preserved bodies that have provided insight into the customs and cultures of people from various eras. One of the oldest mummies (nicknamed
Ötzi) was discovered on this continent. New mummies continue to be uncovered in Europe well into the 21st century.
Bog bodies Great Britain,
Ireland,
Germany, the
Netherlands,
Sweden, and
Denmark have produced a number of
bog bodies, mummies of people deposited in
sphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to
tan the body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining
stomach contents. The
Haraldskær Woman was discovered by labourers in a bog in
Jutland in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal
sarcophagus at the Saint Nicolai Church,
Vejle, where she currently remains. Another bog body, also from Denmark, known as the
Tollund Man was discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. Only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.
Czech Republic The majority of mummies recovered in the
Czech Republic come from underground crypts. While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts. Beginning in the 18th century when the crypt was opened, and continuing until the practice was discontinued in 1787, the
Capuchin friars of the monastery would lay the deceased on a pillow of bricks on the ground. The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time. Approximately fifty mummies were discovered in an abandoned crypt beneath the
Church of St. Procopius of Sázava in
Vamberk in the mid-1980s. Workers digging a trench accidentally broke into the crypt, which began to fill with waste water. The mummies quickly began to deteriorate, though thirty-four were able to be rescued and stored temporarily at the District Museum of the Orlické Mountains until they could be returned to the monastery in 2000.
Denmark Apart from several bog bodies, Denmark has also yielded several other mummies, such as
the three Borum Eshøj mummies, the
Skrydstrup Woman and the
Egtved Girl, who were all found inside burial mounds, or
tumuli. In 1875, the Borum Eshøj grave mound was uncovered, which had been built around three coffins, which belonged to a middle aged man and woman as well as a man in his early twenties. The two men wore kilts, and the younger man wore a sheath which contained a bronze dagger. All three mummies were dated to 1351–1345 BC. The
Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a
tumulus in Southern Jutland, in 1935. Carbon-14 dating showed that she had died around 1300 BC; examination also revealed that she was around 18–19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made by the
sprang technique. She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class. The
Egtved Girl, dated to 1370 BC, was also found inside a sealed coffin within a tumulus, in 1921. She was wearing a
bodice and a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Found with the girl, at her feet, were the cremated remains of a child and, by her head, a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and an
awl.
Hungary In 1994, 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of a
Dominican church in
Vác, Hungary from the 1729–1838 period. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in
Budapest. Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike.
Italy . The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification. Italian mummies display the same diversity, with a conglomeration of natural and intentional mummification spread across many centuries and cultures. The oldest natural mummy in Europe was discovered in 1991 in the
Ötztal Alps on the Austrian-Italian border. Nicknamed
Ötzi, the mummy is a 5,300-year-old male believed to be a member of the
Tamins-Carasso-Isera cultural group of
South Tyrol. Despite his age, a recent DNA study conducted by
Walther Parson of
Innsbruck Medical University revealed Ötzi has 19 living genetic relatives.
North America The mummies of North America are often steeped in controversy, as many of these bodies have been linked to still-existing native cultures. While the mummies provide a wealth of historically significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places. This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye. (The
Spirit Cave mummy although not well preserved, is much older.) Initial radiocarbon tests date the mummy to around 550 years-old.
Mexico Intentional mummification in
pre-Columbian Mexico was practiced by the
Aztec culture. These bodies are collectively known as
Aztec mummies. Genuine Aztec mummies were "bundled" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask. Public knowledge of Aztec mummies increased due to traveling exhibits and museums in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these bodies were typically naturally desiccated remains and not actually the mummies associated with Aztec culture. Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico; this includes the
mummies of Guanajuato. A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at
El Museo de las Momias in the city of
Guanajuato since 1970. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummified
fetus). It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate. Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town of
Encarnación de Díaz,
Jalisco.
United States Spirit Cave Man was discovered in 1940 during salvage work prior to
guano mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the 1990s dated the mummy to being nearly 9,000 years old. The remains were held at the
Nevada State Museum, though the local Native American community began petitioning to have the remains returned and reburied in 1995. When the Bureau of Land Management did not repatriate the mummy in 2000, the
Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe sued under the
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. After
DNA sequencing determined that the remains were in fact related to modern Native Americans, they were repatriated to the tribe in 2016.
Oceania collection. Mummies from
Oceania are not limited only to
Australia. Discoveries of mummified remains have also been located in
New Guinea,
New Zealand, and the
Torres Strait, though these mummies have been historically harder to examine and classify. Prior to the 20th century, most literature on mummification in the region was either silent or anecdotal. the inhabitants of which achieved a high level of sophisticated mummification techniques. Australian mummies lack some of the technical ability of the Torres Strait mummies, however much of the ritual aspects of the mummification process are similar. Sites of their preserved mummies exist in the
Morobe Province.
Torres Strait The mummies of the Torres Strait have a considerably higher level of preservation technique as well as creativity compared to those found on Australia. The mummies remained on the platforms, decorated with the clothing and jewelry they wore in life, before being buried. There is also evidence that some Māori tribes may have practiced full-body mummification, though the practice is not thought to have been widespread. The discussion of Māori mummification has been historically controversial, with some experts in past decades claiming that such mummies have never existed. The historical significance of full-body mummification within Māori culture is acknowledged by science, although there is still debate as to the nature of their exact mummification processes. Some mummies appear to have been spontaneously created by the natural environment, while others exhibit signs of direct human involvement. Generally, modern consensus tends to agree that there could have been a mixture of both types of mummification, similar to that of the Ancient Egyptian culture. Some of the reasons for intentional mummification in South America include memorialization, immortalization, and religious offerings. A large number of mummified bodies have been found in pre-Columbian cemeteries scattered around Peru. The bodies had often been wrapped for burial in finely-woven textiles.
Chauchilla Cemetery Chauchilla Cemetery is a
cemetery that contains prehispanic mummified human remains and archeological artifacts, located south of the city of
Nazca in
Peru.
Chinchorro mummies The
Chinchorro mummies are the oldest intentionally prepared mummified bodies ever found. Beginning in
5th millennium BC and continuing for an estimated 3,500 years, The
Mummy of El Plomo was a male child who was presumed to be wealthy due to his well-fed bodily characteristics. He was considered to be the most well-preserved ice mummy in the world until the discovery of Mummy Juanita in 1995. The three mummies are children, two girls and one boy, who are thought to be sacrifices associated with the ancient ritual of
qhapaq hucha. Recent
biochemical analysis of the mummies has revealed that the victims had consumed increasing quantities of
alcohol and
coca, possibly in the form of
chicha, in the months leading up to sacrifice. An attempt to find the mummies of the Inca emperors beneath the San Andres hospital in 2001 was unsuccessful. The archaeologists found a crypt, but it was empty. Possibly the mummies had been removed when the building was repaired after an earthquake. == Self-mummification ==