Prelude to war After the
French and Indian War (1754–1763), the
British parliament began imposing new policies designed to raise revenue from British America for a war which colonists had played a pivotal role in instigating. After British official William Dudington seized a vessel owned by Greene and his brothers, Greene filed an ultimately successful lawsuit against Dudington for damages. While the lawsuit was pending, Dudington's vessel was torched by a Rhode Island mob in what became known as the
Gaspee Affair. In the aftermath of the Gaspee Affair, Greene became increasingly alienated from the British. At the same time, Greene drifted away from his father's Quaker faith, and he was suspended from Quaker meetings in July 1773. In 1774, after the passage of measures that colonials derided as the "
Intolerable Acts", Greene helped organize a
state militia unit known as the
Kentish Guards. Because of his limp, Greene was not selected as an officer in the militia.
Commander under Washington Boston campaign The
American Revolutionary War broke out with the April 1775
Battles of Lexington and Concord. In early May, the legislature of Rhode Island established the Rhode Island Army of Observation and appointed Greene to command it. Greene's army marched to
Boston, where other colonial forces were
laying siege to a British garrison. He missed the June 1775
Battle of Bunker Hill because he was visiting Rhode Island at the time, but he returned almost immediately after the battle and was impressed by the performance of colonial forces. That same month, the
Second Continental Congress established the
Continental Army and appointed
George Washington to command all colonial forces. In addition to Washington, Congress appointed
sixteen generals, and Greene was appointed as a
brigadier general in the Continental Army. Washington took command of the Siege of Boston in July 1775, bringing with him generals such as
Charles Lee,
Horatio Gates, and
Thomas Mifflin. Washington organized the Continental Army into three
divisions, each consisting of
regiments from different colonies, and Greene was given command of a
brigade consisting of seven regiments. The Siege of Boston continued until March 1776, when British forces evacuated from the city. After the end of the siege, Greene briefly served as the commander of military forces in Boston, but he rejoined Washington's army in April 1776.
New York and New Jersey Campaign Washington established his headquarters in
Manhattan, and Greene was tasked with preparing for the invasion of nearby
Long Island. While he focused on building up fortifications in
Brooklyn, Greene befriended General
Henry Knox and struck up a correspondence with
John Adams. He was also, along with several other individuals, promoted to
major general by an act of Congress. Because of a severe
fever, he did not take part in the
Battle of Long Island, which ended with an American retreat from Long Island. After the battle, Greene urged Washington to raze Manhattan so that it would not fall into the hands of the British, but Congress forbade Washington from doing so. Unable to raze Manhattan, Washington initially wanted to fortify the city, but Greene joined with several officers in convincing Washington that the city was indefensible. During the withdrawal from Manhattan, Greene saw combat for the first time in the
Battle of Harlem Heights, a minor British defeat that nonetheless represented one of the first American victories in the war. After the Battle of Harlem Heights, Washington placed Greene in command of both
Fort Constitution (later known as Fort Lee), which was on
New Jersey side of the
Hudson River, and
Fort Washington, which was across the river from Fort Constitution. While in command of Fort Lee, Greene established supply depots in New Jersey along a potential line of retreat; these would later prove to be valuable resources for the Continental Army. Washington suggested to Greene that he remove the garrison from Fort Washington due to its vulnerability to a British attack, but he ultimately deferred to Greene's decision to continue to station soldiers there. In the subsequent
Battle of Fort Washington, fought in November 1776, the British captured the Fort Washington and its 3,000-man garrison. Greene was subjected to heavy criticism in the aftermath of the battle, but Washington declined to relieve Greene from command. Shortly after the Battle of Fort Washington, a British force under General
Cornwallis captured Fort Lee, and the Continental Army began a retreat across New Jersey and into
Pennsylvania. Greene commanded part of Washington's army in the December 1776
Battle of Trenton and the January 1777
Battle of Princeton, both of which were victories for the Continental Army.
Philadelphia campaign Along with the rest of Washington's army, Greene was stationed in New Jersey throughout the first half of 1777. In July 1777, he publicly threatened to resign over the appointment of a French officer to the Continental Army, but he ultimately retained his commission. Meanwhile, the British began a campaign to capture
Philadelphia, the seat of Congress. At the
Battle of Brandywine, Greene commanded a division at the center of the American line, but the British launched a flanking maneuver. Greene's division helped prevent the
envelopment of American forces and allowed for a safe retreat. The British captured Philadelphia shortly after the Battle of the Brandywine, but Washington launched a surprise attack on a British force at the October 1777
Battle of Germantown. Greene's detachment arrived late to the battle, which ended in another American defeat. In December, Greene joined with the rest of Washington's army in establishing a camp at
Valley Forge, located twenty-five miles northwest of Philadelphia. Over the winter of 1777–1778, he clashed with Thomas Mifflin and other members of the
Conway Cabal, a group that frequently criticized Washington and sought to install Horatio Gates as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. In March 1778, Greene reluctantly accepted the position of
quartermaster general, making him responsible for procuring supplies for the Continental Army. Along with his top two assistants,
Charles Pettit and John Cox, Greene reorganized his 3,000-person department, establishing supply depots in strategic places across the United States. As quartermaster general, Greene continued to attend Washington's councils-of-war, an unusual arrangement for a
staff officer. After
France joined the war in early 1778, the British army in Philadelphia was ordered to New York.
Stalemate in the Northern theater, 1778–1780 In July 1778, Washington granted Greene temporary leave as quartermaster general so that he could take part in an attack on British forces stationed in his home state of Rhode Island. The offensive was designed as a combined Franco-American operation under the command of General
John Sullivan and French admiral
d'Estaing, but the French fleet withdrew due to bad weather conditions. Greene fought in the subsequent
Battle of Rhode Island, an inconclusive battle that ended with a British retreat from the American position. After the battle, the American force under Sullivan left Rhode Island, while Greene returned to his duties as quartermaster general. After mid-1778, the Northern theater of the war became a stalemate, as the main British force remained in New York City and Washington's force was stationed nearby on the Hudson River. The British turned their attention to the Southern theater of the war, launching an ultimately successful
expedition to capture Savannah. Though he desired a battlefield command, Greene continued to serve as the Continental Army's quartermaster general. As Congress was increasingly powerless to furnish funds for supplies, Greene became an advocate of a stronger national government. In June 1780, while Washington's main force continued to guard the Hudson River, Greene led a detachment to block the advance of a British contingent through New Jersey. Despite being vastly outnumbered in the
Battle of Springfield, Greene forced the withdrawal of the British force on the field. Shortly after the battle, Greene resigned as quartermaster general in a letter that strongly criticized Congress; although some members of Congress were so outraged by the letter that they sought to relieve Greene of his officer's commission, Washington's intervention ensured that Greene retained a position in the Continental Army. After
Benedict Arnold defected to the British, Greene briefly served as the commandant of
West Point and presided over the execution of
John André, Arnold's contact in the British army.
Command in the South Appointment By October 1780, the Continental Army had suffered several devastating defeats in the
South under the command of
Benjamin Lincoln and
Horatio Gates, leaving the United States at a major disadvantage in the Southern theater of the war. On October 14, 1780, Washington, acting on the authorization of Congress, appointed Greene as the commander of the
Southern Department of the Continental Army. By the time he took command, the British were in control of key portions of
Georgia and
South Carolina, and the governments of the Southern states were unable to provide much support to the Continental Army. Greene would face a 6,000-man British army led by General Cornwallis and cavalry commander
Banastre Tarleton, as well as numerous
Loyalist militias that worked with the British. Outnumbered and under-supplied, Greene settled on a strategy of
guerrilla warfare rather than
pitched battles in order to prevent the advance of the British into
North Carolina and
Virginia. His strategy would heavily depend on riverboats and cavalry to outmaneuver and harass British forces. Among Greene's key subordinates in the Southern campaign were his second-in-command,
Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, cavalry commander
Henry Lee, the Marquis de Lafayette,
Daniel Morgan, and
Francis Marion.
Strategic retreat While en route to the Southern theater, Greene learned of the October 1780 American victory at the
Battle of Kings Mountain, which postponed Cornwallis's planned advance into North Carolina. Upon arriving in
Charlotte, North Carolina, in December 1780, Greene went against conventional military strategy by dividing his forces; he would lead the main American force southeast, while Morgan would lead a smaller detachment to the southwest. Cornwallis responded by dividing his own forces, marching the main detachment against Greene while Tarleton led a force against Morgan. In the January 1781
Battle of Cowpens, Morgan led Continental troops to a major victory that resulted in the near-total destruction of Tarleton's force. After the battle, Cornwallis set off in pursuit of Morgan, burning some of his own supplies in order to speed up his army's movement. Greene linked up with Morgan and retreated into North Carolina, purposely forcing Cornwallis away from British supply lines. On February 9, in consultation with Morgan and other top officers, Greene decided to continue the retreat north, heading toward the
Dan River at the North Carolina-Virginia border. With the British in close pursuit, Greene divided his forces, leading the main contingent north while sending a smaller group under Colonel
Otho Williams to harass British forces. Greene's force outpaced the British and crossed the Dan River on February 14. Greene's contemporaries were impressed by the speed and efficiency of the retreat through difficult territory;
Alexander Hamilton wrote that it was a "masterpiece of military skill and exertion." Unwilling to travel even farther from his supply lines, General Cornwallis led his army south to
Hillsborough, North Carolina. On February 22, Greene's force crossed back over the Dan River to challenge Cornwallis in North Carolina.
Battle of Guilford Court House in
Greensboro, NC After crossing back into North Carolina, Greene harassed Cornwallis's army. In early March, he received reinforcements from North Carolina and Virginia, doubling the size of his force to approximately 4,000 men. On March 14, he led his army to
Guilford Courthouse and began preparing for an attack by Cornwallis, using a strategy based on Morgan's plan at the Battle of Cowpens. Greene established three defensive lines, with the North Carolina militia making up the first line, the Virginia militia making up the second line, and the Continental Army regulars, positioned on a hill behind a small stream, making up the third line. After skirmishes on the morning of March 15, the main British force launched a full attack in the afternoon, beginning the
Battle of Guilford Court House. The first American line fired volleys and then fled, either to the next line or away from the battlefield. The second line held up for longer and continued to resist the British advance while Cornwallis ordered an unsuccessful assault against the third line. The British re-formed and launched an assault on the left flank of the third line, but were overwhelmed by Henry Lee's cavalry. In response, Cornwallis ordered his artillery to fire
grapeshot into the fray, hitting British and American soldiers alike. With his army's left flank collapsing, Greene ordered a retreat, bringing the battle to an end. Although the Battle of Guilford Court House ended with an American defeat, the British suffered substantially greater losses.
Campaign in South Carolina and Georgia After the Battle of Guilford Court House, Cornwallis's force headed south to
Wilmington, North Carolina. Greene initially gave chase but declined to press for an attack after much of the militia returned home. To Greene's surprise, in late April Cornwallis's force began a march north to
Yorktown, Virginia. Rather than follow Cornwallis, Greene headed South, where he challenged British commander
Francis Rawdon for control of South Carolina and Georgia. On April 20, he began a siege of
Camden, South Carolina, and established a camp at a nearby ridge known as Hobkirk's Hill. On the 25th, Rawdon launched a surprise attack on Greene's position, beginning the
Battle of Hobkirk's Hill. Despite having been taken by surprise, Greene's force nearly achieved victory, but the left flank collapsed and the cavalry failed to arrive. Facing total defeat, Greene ordered a retreat, bringing an end to the battle. Although the American and British forces suffered a similar number of losses in the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill, Greene was deeply disappointed by the result of the battle. On May 10, Rawdon's force left Camden for
Charleston, South Carolina, effectively conceding control of much of interior South Carolina to the Continental Army. In a series of small actions, Greene and his subordinates further eroded British control of interior South Carolina by capturing several British forts. On June 18, after undertaking the month-long
siege of Ninety Six, Greene launched an unsuccessful attack on the British fort at
Ninety Six, South Carolina. Although the assault failed, Rawdon ordered the fort abandoned shortly thereafter. Meanwhile, Greene's subordinates further expanded Continental control, capturing
Augusta, Georgia, on June 5. By the end of June, the British controlled little more than a thin strip of coastal land from Charleston to Savannah. After resting through much of July and August, the Continental Army resumed operations and engaged a British force on September 8 at the
Battle of Eutaw Springs. The battle ended with a Continental retreat, but the British suffered more substantial losses. After the battle, the British force returned to Charleston, leaving interior South Carolina in full control of Continental forces. Congress issued Greene a gold medal and passed a resolution congratulating him for his victory at Eutaw Springs. While Greene campaigned in South Carolina and Georgia, Lafayette led Continental resistance to Cornwallis's army in Virginia. Although Greene's command gave him leadership of Continental operations in Virginia, he was unable to closely control events in Virginia from South Carolina. Lafayette heeded Greene's advice to avoid combat, but his force only narrowly escaped destruction at the July 1781
Battle of Green Spring. In August, Washington and French general
Rochambeau left New York for Yorktown, intent on inflicting a decisive defeat against Cornwallis. Washington
laid siege to Cornwallis at Yorktown, and Cornwallis surrendered on October 19.
After Yorktown Yorktown was widely regarded as a disastrous defeat for the British, and many considered the war to have effectively ended in late 1781. The governments of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia each voted Greene liberal grants of lands and money, including an estate called "Boone's Barony" in
Bamberg County, South Carolina, and
Mulberry Grove Plantation near Savannah. Nonetheless, the British still controlled New York, Savannah, and Charleston, and Greene still contended with Loyalist militias who sought to destabilize Continental control. With American finances in a disastrous state, Greene also struggled to clothe and feed his troops. In late 1781, he declined appointment to the newly created position of
secretary of war, which was charged with overseeing the Continental Army. He also corresponded with
Robert Morris, the
superintendent of finance of the United States, who shared Greene's view on the need for a stronger national government than the one that had been established in the
Articles of Confederation. No major military action occurred in 1782, and the British evacuated Savannah and Charleston before the end of that year. Congress officially declared the end of the war in April 1783, and Greene resigned his commission in late 1783. ==Later life and death==