and its neighbors, including the
Tuoba Wei and the
Tuyuhun, all of which were established by Proto-Mongols The ethnogenesis of Mongolic peoples is largely linked with the expansion of
Ancient Northeast Asians. The Mongolian pastoralist lifestyle may in part be derived from the
Western Steppe Herders, but without much geneflow between these two groups, suggesting cultural transmission. In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the
Scythians, the
Magog, and the
Tungusic peoples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the
Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and
Manchuria. The Donghu neighboured the
Xiongnu, whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were
proto-Mongols, they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and
Turkic tribes. It has been suggested that the language of the
Huns was related to the Xiongnu. --> The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (
Xianbei and
Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the
Khitan).
In the Chinese classics Mongol rider The Donghu are mentioned by
Sima Qian as already existing in
Inner Mongolia north of
Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the
Shanrong. Unofficial Chinese sources such as
Yi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the
Classic of Mountains and Seas project the Donghu's activities back to the
Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However, the Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang
fang (方 "border-region"; modern term
fāngguó 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem "
The Great Summons" () in the anthology
Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book
Discourses of the States, which states that during the reign of
King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now
Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of
Chu since they were not
vassals (诸侯) by
enfeoffment and establishment. The Xianbei chieftain was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount
Xiong Yi. These early Xianbei came from the nearby
Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the
Ordos Desert, where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol
Daur people and the Tungusic
Evenks. The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the
Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern
Shaanxi) had trade relations with the Shang.
Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted
Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that
Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of the present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the
Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king
Modu Chanyu, the
Xianbei and
Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation.
Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic
Kumo Xi. The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the
New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from
Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under
Tanshihuai (reigned 156–181) who expanded their vast but short lived
confederation. found in Hungary has provided evidence that they originated in what is now Mongolia. Three prominent groups split from the
Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the
Rouran (claimed by some to be the
Pannonian Avars), the
Khitan people and the
Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the
Murong,
Duan and
Tuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religion
shamanism or
Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke
Mongolic languages, although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically, the
Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran (
Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title
khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of
Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the
First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the
Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the
Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan,
Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the
Tatar confederation, who became part of the
Shiwei. The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the
Kumo Xi (of
Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them,
Abaoji (872–926), established the
Liao dynasty (916–1125).
Mongol Empire by
Araniko (1245–1306) The destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands. The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The
Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on
Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of
Abaoji, prevailed in several military campaigns against the
Tang dynastys border guards, and the
Xi,
Shiwei and
Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of the Liao dynasty led by
Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the
Jurchen-led
Jin dynasty and founded the
Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218,
Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the
Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and the
Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the
Mongol Empire, the Mongolic people settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the
Adriatic Sea to
Indonesian
Java and from
Japan to
Palestine. They simultaneously became
Padishahs of
Persia,
Emperors of China, and
Great Khans of the Mongols, and one (
Al-Adil Kitbugha) became
Sultan of Egypt. The Mongolic peoples of the
Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of
China proper under the control of the
Yuan dynasty. In 1434, Eastern Mongol
Taisun Khan's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing
Adai Khan in
Ejin. Togoon died in 1439 and his son
Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in the 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449
Tumu Crisis. Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of
Great Khan (1454–1455) of the
Great Yuan. The Khalkha emerged during the reign of
Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six
tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550,
Altan Khan led a
Tumed Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian
Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia was divided into three parts in the 17th century:
Outer Mongolia (Khalkha),
Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern
Siberia. The last Mongol khagan was
Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the
Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from the Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the
Chahars remained under his rule.
Qing era between Qing dynasty and Dzungar Khanate soldier called
Ayusi from the high Qing era, by
Giuseppe Castiglione, 1755 The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan
Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported the Manchus, while Ligdan supported
Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of
Tibetan Buddhism. Ligden died in 1634 on his way to
Tibet. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the
Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis
noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol
Dzungar Khanate's king
Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and
Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of the war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683
Galdan's armies reached
Tashkent and the
Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the
Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the
Black Khirgizs and ravaged the
Fergana Valley. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took
Taraz, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the
City of Turkistan. Under the leadership of
Abul Khair Khan, the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to
Qing rule in 1691 by
Zanabazar's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha
de facto remained under the rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of
Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of
Khövsgöl Province. Zanabazar struggled to bring together the Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles,
Tibetans,
Kumul Khanate and some
Moghulistan's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader) was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew
Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian
invasion since the
1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both the sides of
Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the
Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of
Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained
Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the
Argun River north of Mongolia. The
Treaty of Kyakhta (1727), along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established the
Mongolia-Russia border.
Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's
Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The
Dzungar Khanate conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the
Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on
genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to
Volga River in 1607 and established the
Kalmyk Khanate.The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi,
Kho Orluk. Russia was concerned about their attack but the
Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The
Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition, the Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The
Russian Orthodox church, by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of the Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of their
Bashkir and
Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan
Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the
Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress
Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished the Kalmyk Khanate. The
Kyrgyzs attacked them near
Balkhash Lake. About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the
Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only
Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. , 1913 In the early 20th century, the late Qing government encouraged
Han Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of "
New Policies" or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the
Xinhai Revolution, the
Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty.
Post-Qing era , 1921 With the independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day
Uvs,
Khovd, and
Bayan-Ölgii provinces), but Northern
Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire),
Upper Mongolia,
Barga and
Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed
Republic of China. On February 2, 1913, the
Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to the Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar,
Nicholas II, referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the
United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however, the Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats,
Upper Mongols,
Barga Mongols, most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of
Mongolian reunification. In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining the Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost
Barga, Dzungaria,
Tuva, Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the
1915 Treaty of Kyakhta. In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the
White Russian army—led by
Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar
cossacks—liberated
Ulaanbaatar. Baron Ungern's purpose was to find allies to defeat the
Soviet Union. The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. Finally, the
National Government of the Republic of China officially
recognized Mongolian independence in 1945. Although the Soviet Union supported the Mongolian People's Republic, Soviets carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other
irredentist movements. On 10 April 1932, Mongolians
revolted against the government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression.
Joseph Stalin's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the
Stalinist repressions in Mongolia, almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of the total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations (
World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they were not Mongols under its demongolization policy. 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of the Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919, the Buryats established a small
theocratic Balagad state in the
Kizhinginsky District of Russia which later fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922, Mongolia proposed to migrate the Kalmyks during the Kalmyk Famine, but Bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the
Russian famine of 1921–22. The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913,
Nicholas II, tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from the Volga
Tatars. But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are the Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923
Joseph Stalin, communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the
Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal
Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under the Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. (right) On 3 October 2002, the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan
recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as the
Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission, lie dormant.
Agin-Buryat Okrug and
Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with
Irkutsk Oblast and
Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in
2011. The
Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attempting to establish a sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. == Language ==