Long before the establishment of the Peshmerga, Kurdish fighters were known in the
Middle East for their military traditions and use of
guerrilla tactics. In antiquity,
Babylonian sources from around the 7th century BC referred to the inhabitants of the mountains of what is now
southern Kurdistan as
Qutil. The term has been suggested to derive from the
Akkadian word
qardu and the
Persian word
gurd, both of which are associated with meanings such as "hero" or "warrior." Conflicts between these presumed proto-Kurdish mountain communities and the peoples of
Lower Mesopotamia are documented in pre-Biblical sources and are regarded as some of the earliest examples of guerrilla-style warfare in the region. From the 16th to the 19th century, Kurdish fighters served under various
tribal leaders and
principalities, and sometimes as paramilitary
border guards under
Ottoman and
Safavid rule, while also participating in the regular armies of these empires. Under the Kurdish
Zand dynasty,
women were allowed to serve alongside their husbands, reflecting a level of gender equality more common in
Kurdish societies than in neighboring Muslim communities. Building on the military experience gained during these uprisings, Mustafa Barzani later organized Kurdish forces in order to liberate
Kurdistan. In 1943, he led approximately 2,000 Kurdish fighters in an
uprising against the Iraqi Army and British forces, an event often regarded as a precursor to the modern Peshmerga forces that would later emerge, particularly during the period of the
Republic of Mahabad. Furthermore, under president
Qazi Muhammad’s orders, a committee of “hand-picked litterateurs and writers” also developed distinct Kurdish military terminology to define ranks and positions.
Fall of the republic The withdrawal of Soviet support and the subsequent
collapse of the republic, including the
execution of its head of state, Qazi Muhammad, dismantled the Peshmerga's organization, who had agreed with the Iranians to peacefully withdraw from the capital of
Mahabad, to avoid civilians casualties. Peshmerga forces led by Barzani remained active in rural areas of Iranian Kurdistan for a period following the collapse of the republic and engaged Iranian Army units in March 1947. During these clashes, the Peshmerga reportedly inflicted significant casualties and captured several Iranian officers, particularly during the
Battle of Nalos, including Lieutenant Jahanbani, the son of General
Nader Jahanbani. The war resulted in the signing of the
Iraqi–Kurdish Autonomy Agreement between the Kurds and the
Ba'athist regime, which
had replaced Qasim in 1963. Kurdish autonomy had failed to be implemented by 1974, which led to the
Second Iraqi–Kurdish War in 1975.
Jalal Talabani, a leading member of the KDP, left the same year to revitalize the resistance and founded the
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). This event created the baseline for the political discontent between the KDP and PUK that divides Peshmerga forces and much of Kurdish society to this day. After Mustafa Barzani's death in 1979, his son
Masoud Barzani took over his position. (Raperîn) Following the
First Gulf War, the
1991 uprisings (Raperîn) broke out, which led to
de facto autonomy for the
Kurdistan Region. Killed Peshmerga were commemorated as
martyrs. The memory of killed, injured and
veteran Peshmerga fighters became widespread in public life through paintings, sculptures, and memorials, as well as through regular representation on radio and television and in commemorative rituals. Most Kurdish collaborators were granted
amnesty, and some were subsequently incorporated into the Peshmerga forces of their respective parties. The civil war officially ended in September 1998 when the Barzanis and Talabanis signed the
Washington Agreement establishing a formal peace treaty. In the agreement, the parties agreed to share oil revenue and power, deny the use of Iraqi Kurdistan to the
Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), and to not allow Iraqi troops into the Kurdish regions. By then, around 5,000 Peshmerga and civilians had been killed on both sides, and many more had been evicted for being on the "wrong side". Throughout the decades of conflict, the Peshmerga were widely considered to be liberators of the
Kurdish population. The
CIA and other
US special forces, who arrived in Iraq in early 2002, conducted
unconventional warfare operations with the Peshmerga against
Ansal al-Islam terrorists. Furthermore Peshmerga were organized to form a 'northern Front' against
Saddam Hussein's troops. As the bombing campaign and subsequent invasion of Iraq began, Peshmerga forces, operating alongside U.S. Special Forces, advanced beyond the Kurdistan Region and took control of large areas that were widely regarded as Kurdish but had previously been outside Kurdish control. These areas included
Sinjar,
Tuz Khurmatu,
Khanaqin, and
Kirkuk. By tying down Saddam Hussein’s
5th Division in northern Iraq, the Peshmerga, helped facilitate the
coalition’s invasion of
southern Iraq and reduced the number of Iraqi forces available to oppose coalition operations elsewhere, likely saving hundreds if not thousands of lives. The Peshmerga also played a key role in helping the United States on the mission to capture Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. After the overthrowing, the Peshmerga were politically recognized and obtained a special legal position. This improvement came from the
Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) with issuing orders that recognized the Peshmerga and exempted them from disbandment. In August 2003, parts of the Peshmerga were assigned to
border security and
oil pipeline protection, while others trained with
coalition troops. Peshmerga units collaborated closely with U.S. forces on
patrols,
interrogations, and security missions. At one point, the Peshmerga made up 30% of the
new Iraqi Army.
Legal status of the Peshmerga Article 117 of the new
2005 Iraqi Constitution allowed
federal regions (such as the Kurdistan Region) to establish their own internal security services; that is, the "police, security forces and guards of the region." The Peshmerga are legally recognized as one of these permissible regional internal security forces. In 2006, a major conference in Erbil, involving the KRG, Iraqi Government, and
Multinational Forces in Iraq, further clarified the Peshmerga's role: defending the Kurdistan Region, supporting federal security efforts, fighting
terrorism, and preserving constitutional institutions. and most Peshmerga fighters remained under the control of the KDP and PUK. .
2014 war against the Islamic State In the first half of 2014, during the
Islamic State’s (ISIL/ISIS)
offensive, the
Iraqi Armed Forces rapidly collapsed in much of
Sunni-majority
western Iraq, leading to the
fall of Mosul and other strategic areas. Peshmerga forces, many of whom had not experienced major combat for over a decade, swiftly moved into positions abandoned by Iraqi forces in
disputed territories with significant Kurdish populations, including
Sinjar,
Jalawla,
Tuz Khurmatu,
Rabia and the oil-rich city of
Kirkuk. Most of Iraqi Kurdistan's southern regions, including Jalawla, Tuz Khurmatu and Kirkuk remained under Peshmerga control until 2017 and were
defended on numerous occasions against ISIS offensives. As stated by a report of the German
Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, the Peshmerga are seen by locals as heroes due to their involvement in the fight against ISIS.
Post-2017 reforms Following the defeat of ISIS in 2017, conflicts with the Iraqi government, supported by
Shi'ite militas and the
IRGC renewed, leading to the
2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict. Post-ISIS Peshmerga reforms focused on unification and modernization. In September 2022, the U.S. and KRG renewed a MoU to create a unified, nonpartisan force under MoPA command by 2026, including disbanding partisan Units 70 and 80, establishing two Area Commands and 11 light infantry divisions, and achieving a planned strength of 138,000. Advancements included the 2025 'Peshmerga Medical Force Readiness Initiative' and proposals for air defense systems. Continued Coalition support via CTEF provided stipends, vehicles, and equipment. ==Structure ==