From Proto-Uralic • followed by > followed by . • > , a change shared with the
Finnic and
Mordvinic languages. This change
counterfeeds the previous one. • > . • Loss of
vowel harmony (if it existed). In non-initial syllables, front, and back harmonic allophones collapsed into one: > and > . • > , a development also shared with Finnic and Mordvinic. • > • Vowels are lengthened before . • > before a vowel. is lost elsewhere. • > • > • > This approximate point of Pre-Sámi marks the introduction of the oldest Western Indo-European loanwords from Baltic and Germanic. Loans were also acquired from its southern relative Finnic, substituting the early Finnic sound with Sámi . Likely contemporary to these were the oldest loanwords adapted from extinct Paleo-European
substrate languages during the northwestward expansion of Pre-Sámi. Prime suspects for words of this origin include replacements of Uralic core vocabulary, or words that display consonant clusters that cannot derive from either PU or any known Indo-European source. A number of the later type can be found in the Finnic languages as well. Examples: • PU > preS > PS 'uncle' • PU > preS > PS 'glue' • PU > preS > PS 'tree stump' • PU > preS > PS 'to sell' • Baltic → preS > PS 'frost' • Germanic 'red' → preS > PS 'iron' • Germanic → preS > PS 'guest' • Finnic → preS > PS 'rear' • substrate? → preS > PS 'rock', in place of Uralic • substrate? → preS or > PS "wood", in place of Uralic or • substrate? → preS > PS 'perch' (cf. Finnish
ahven) • substrate? → preS > PS 'feather' (cf. Finnish
höyhen) Later consonant changes mostly involved the genesis of the consonant gradation system, but also the simplification of various consonant clusters, chiefly in loanwords. • Geminate fricatives were introduced in certain loanwords. • was denasalized before a
heterorganic obstruent. • PU → PS 'bow' • PU → PS 'cavity'
Vowel shift A fairly late but major development within Sámi was a complete upheaval of the vowel system, which has been compared in scope to the
Great Vowel Shift of English. The previous changes left a system consisting of in the first syllable in Pre-Sámi, and probably at least long . In unstressed syllables, only were distinguished. The source of is unclear, although it is frequently also found in Finnic. The table below shows the main correspondences: The processes that added up to this shift can be outlined as follows: • Lowering: > , including unstressed . • Raising: > before a following . There are also irregular examples with > (for example
*kolmi 'three' >
*kʊlmi > Proto-Sámi
*kolmë > Northern Sámi
golbma). • All non-close vowels are lengthened: > . If earlier long non-close vowels existed, they were merged with their short counterparts by this time. At this point, the vowel system consisted of only two short vowels in initial syllables, alongside the full complement of long vowels . In non-initial syllables, the vowels were . After this, several
metaphonic changes then occurred that rearranged the distribution of long vowels in stressed syllables. • > before and . This may indicate that second-syllable was a relatively open vowel such as . • > before . • > also elsewhere. suggests the following four phases: • Lowering of mid vowels before and . • Raising of open vowels before , merging with the un-lowered mid vowels. • Raising of remaining . • Backing of remaining . The inventory of long vowels in stressed syllables now featured seven members: . However, in native vocabulary remained in complementary distribution: the closed-mid vowel only occurred before following , the open-mid vowel only before following , . Further changes then shifted the sound values of the unstressed syllables that had conditioned the above shift: • > , regardless of following vowels. • > , unless followed by in a third or later syllable. • > before . Lastly, a number of unconditional shifts adjusted the sound values of the vowel phonemes. • > , in initial syllables. Word initially, > . • > . There likely was an intermediate for the first of these. • > . To what extent the two last changes should be dated to Proto-Sámi proper is unclear. Although all Sámi languages show these changes in at least some words, in
Southern Sámi and
Ume Sámi earlier , , , are regularly reflected as
ij,
i,
u,
uv in stressed
open syllables. It is possible that these are
archaisms, and shortening and lowering occurred only after the initial division of Proto-Sámi into dialects. The effects of the vowel shift can be illustrated by the following comparison between Northern Sámi, and
Finnish, known for retaining vowel values very close to Proto-Uralic. All word pairs correspond to each other regularly:
Towards the modern Sámi languages The main division among the Sámi languages is the split between eastern and western Sámi. Changes that appear across the Eastern-Western divide are: • Denasalisation of clusters of nasal plus homorganic consonant to geminate voiced or partially voiced stops (all except Akkala, Kildin and Ter Sámi). This appears to have originally been a Western Sámi innovation that then spread to Inari and Skolt Sámi, as it was still productive in those languages after the borrowing of certain words that escaped the process in Western Sámi. For example, Finnish
anteeksi was borrowed into Northern Sámi as
ándagassii after the change, thus with a newly introduced nasal, while Inari Sámi has
addâgâs, borrowed before the change and thus lacking the nasal. • Preaspiration of single stops and affricates (all except Akkala, Kildin and Ter Sámi). • Development of the rare phoneme
*θ to
*t word-initially. Southern Sámi and Ume Sámi have
*h instead. • Deaffrication of
*c and
*č before another consonant. This change occurred in a large area in the middle of the Sámi area, with the outliers Southern, Akkala, Kildin, Ter and partly also Skolt Sámi preserving the original affricates.
Western Sámi Innovations common to the Western Sámi languages: • Pre-stopped or pre-glottalised nasals develop from original geminate nasals (not in Sea Sámi). • Vocalisation of
*š to
*j before a stop (not in Sea Sámi). • Metathesis and fortition of
*ŋv to
*vk. • Assimilation of
*ŋm to
*mm, which then becomes pre-stopped/pre-glottalised. • Merging of clusters of stop plus homorganic nasal with single nasals. The Southern West Sámi languages consist of
Southern Sámi and
Ume Sámi, and have a number of further innovations: • Lengthening of short syllables, either by lengthening stressed to /ij uv/ in open syllables, or geminating single consonants after other short vowels. • Stressed are raised to /i u/ in open syllables (in Ume Sámi only if the next vowel is not ). • Reduction of consonant gradation. It is only partly present in Ume Sámi, and entirely lost in Southern Sámi. The Northern West Sámi languages consist of
Pite Sámi,
Lule Sámi, and Northern Sámi. They have one important common innovation: • Pre-stopped or pre-glottalised nasals develop also from strong-grade single nasals (not in Sea Sámi). Pite Sámi and Lule Sámi form their own smaller subgroup of shared innovations, which might be termed Northwestern West Sámi: • 2nd syllable is assimilated to /o/ after 1st syllable /o/. • The distinction between single and geminate stops ( etc.) is neutralized after the liquids /l/, /r/. Northern Sámi by itself has its own unique changes: • Change of *p to *k in clusters before a stop or sibilant. • Merging of accusative and genitive cases. • Merging of the inessive into the elative to form a common locative case, with the ending used depending on dialect. • Loss of the past tense of the negative verb, in favour of a construction using the present tense of the negative verb with the past participle (like Finnish).
Eastern Sámi The Eastern Sámi languages have the following innovations: • Contraction of syllables before
*nč. • Development of
ŋ to
v before another labial sonorant. • Merging of clusters of stop plus homorganic nasal with geminate nasals. The Mainland East Sámi languages,
Inari Sámi,
Skolt Sámi, and
Akkala Sámi, share further innovations: • Gemination of even in the weak grade. • Merging of unstressed with . Skolt and Akkala Sámi moreover share: • Loss of final unstressed vowels. • Merging of with . • Development of stressed to /e o/ under certain conditions. Peninsular East (Kola) Sámi, consisting of
Kildin Sámi and
Ter Sámi, share: • Loss of after a consonant between unstressed syllables.
Overview Reflexes in parentheses are retentions found in certain subdialects. In particular, in the coastal dialects of
North Sámi (known as Sea Sámi), several archaisms have been attested, including a lack of pre-stopping of geminate nasals, a lack of -vocalization, and a reflex of in certain positions. These likely indicate an earlier Eastern Sámi
substratum.
Umlaut In the history of Proto-Sámi, some sound changes were triggered or prevented by the nature of the vowel in the next syllable. Such changes continued to occur in the modern Sámi languages, but differently in each. Due to the similarity with
Germanic umlaut, these phenomena are termed "umlaut" as well. The following gives a comparative overview of each possible Proto-Sámi vowel in the first syllable, with the outcomes that are found in each language for each second-syllable vowel.
Long open Long open-mid • In Ume Sámi,
eä appears before a quantity 3 consonant,
iä or
ie before a quantity 1 or 2 consonant. • In Pite Sámi,
ä appears before a quantity 3 consonant,
ie before a quantity 1 or 2 consonant. • In Lule Sámi,
ä and
oa appear before a quantity 3 consonant,
e and
å̄ before a quantity 1 or 2 consonant, if a short vowel follows. • In Skolt Sámi,
iẹʹ and
uẹʹ appear before a quantity 2 consonant,
eäʹ and
uäʹ otherwise.
Long close-mid • In Ume Sámi,
eä appears before a quantity 3 consonant,
iä before a quantity 1 or 2 consonant. Some dialects have a pattern more like Pite Sámi, with
ua or
uä before a quantity 3 consonant, and
uo or
uö before a quantity 1 or 2 consonant. • In Pite Sámi,
ä and
ua or
uä appear before a quantity 3 consonant,
ie and
uo before a quantity 1 or 2 consonant. • In Lule Sámi, original
*ie does not undergo umlaut by regular sound change, but almost all
e-stems have acquired umlaut by analogy with original
*ea, as the two vowels fall together before original
*ē.
Short mid Short close • In Kildin Sámi, is written after the letter , in all other cases. ==Notes==