Food Many flying foxes species are killed for
bushmeat. The bushmeat harvest is often unsustainable, often resulting in severe population decline or
local extinction. Flying foxes are killed and sold for bushmeat in several countries in Southeast Asia,
South Asia, and
Oceania, including
Indonesia, Malaysia,
Papua New Guinea, the
Philippines, Bangladesh, China,
Fiji, and Guam. Flying fox consumption is particularly common in countries with low
food security and lack of environmental regulation. In Guam and the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, consumption of the Mariana fruit bat exposes locals to the
neurotoxin beta-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) which may later lead to
neurodegenerative diseases. BMAA may become
biomagnified in humans who consume flying foxes; flying foxes are exposed to BMAA by eating
cycad fruits.
Medicine Flying foxes are killed for use in traditional medicine. The Indian flying fox, for example, has many perceived medical uses. Some believe that its fat is a treatment for
rheumatism. Healers of the Kanda tribe of Bangladesh use hair from Indian flying foxes to create treatments for "fever with shivering."
Transmitting disease Flying foxes are the
natural reservoirs of several viruses, some of which can be
transmitted to humans. Notably, flying foxes can transmit
lyssaviruses, which cause
rabies. In Australia the
rabies virus is not naturally present;
Australian bat lyssavirus is the only lyssavirus present. Australian bat lyssavirus was first identified in 1996; it is very rarely transmitted to humans. Transmission occurs from the bite or scratch of an infected animal, but can also occur from getting the infected animal's saliva in a
mucous membrane or an open
wound. Exposure to flying fox blood, urine, or feces is not a risk of exposure to Australian bat lyssavirus. Since 1994, there have been three records of people getting infected with it—all three were in
Queensland and each case was fatal. Flying foxes are also reservoirs of
henipaviruses such as
Hendra virus and
Nipah virus. Hendra virus was first identified in 1994; it also rarely occurs in humans. From 1994 to 2013, there have been seven reported cases of Hendra virus affecting people, four of which were fatal. The hypothesized primary route of human infection is via contact with
horses that have come into contact with flying fox
urine. There are no documented instances of direct transmission between flying foxes and humans. As of 2012, there is a
vaccine available for horses to decrease the likelihood of infection and transmission. Nipah virus was first identified in 1998 in Malaysia. Since 1998, there have been several Nipah outbreaks in Malaysia,
Singapore,
India, and Bangladesh, resulting in over 100 casualties. A 2018 outbreak in
Kerala, India resulted in 19 humans infected, of which 17 died. The overall fatality rate is 40–75%. Humans can contract Nipah virus from direct contact with flying foxes or their fluids, through exposure to an intermediate
host such as
domestic pigs, or from contact with an infected person. A 2014 study of the Indian flying fox and Nipah virus found that while Nipah virus outbreaks are more likely in areas preferred by flying foxes, "the presence of bats in and of itself is not considered a risk factor for Nipah virus infection." Rather, the consumption of
date palm sap is a significant route of transmission. The practice of date palm sap collection involves placing collecting pots at date palm trees. Indian flying foxes have been observed licking the sap as it flows into the pots, as well as defecating and urinating in proximity to the pots. In this way, humans who drink the palm sap can be exposed to the bats' viruses. The use of bamboo skirts on collecting pots lowers the risk of contamination from bat fluids. Flying foxes can transmit several non-lethal diseases as well, such as
Menangle virus and
Nelson Bay virus. These viruses rarely affect humans and few cases have been reported.
Pests Flying foxes are often considered
pests due to the damage they cause to
orchard crops. Flying foxes have been cited as particularly destructive to
almonds,
guavas, and
mangoes in the Maldives;
lychee in Mauritius;
areca in India; and
stone fruits in Australia. Orchard damages from other animals are often misattributed to flying foxes, though, and economic damage can be difficult to quantify or exaggerated. To prevent fruit damage, farmers may legally or illegally cull flying foxes. In the 1800s, the Australian government paid farmers
bounties to kill flying foxes, though the practice has since been discontinued. Alternatives to culling include placing barriers between the bats and fruit trees, such as netting, or harvesting fruit in a timely manner to avoid attracting as many flying foxes. Netting is the most effective way to prevent crop loss, though some farmers find it cost prohibitive. It costs US$4,400–44,000 to net of crops. The location of flying fox camps can be a disturbance to humans. In
Batemans Bay, Australia, locals report being so disturbed by flying fox vocalizations in the morning that they lose sleep. Flying foxes can fly into power lines and cause electricity outages. Their guano and body odor are also unpleasant to smell. The presence of flying fox colonies can cause nearby property values to decline.
In culture art Flying foxes are featured in many indigenous cultures and traditions. A
folklore Dreamtime story from the
New South Wales North Coast in Australia features an impatient flying fox wanting the Great Spirit to teach him how to be a bird, only to be hung upside down on a branch. They were also featured in Aboriginal cave art, as evinced by several surviving examples. In
Tonga, flying foxes are considered sacred. All flying foxes are the property of the king, meaning non-royal persons cannot harm them in any way. Tongan legend states that a colony of flying foxes at
Kolovai are the descendants of a pair of flying foxes gifted to the King of Tonga by the Princess of Samoa. In the Indian village of Puliangulam, a colony of Indian flying foxes roosts in a
Banyan tree. Villagers believe that the flying foxes are under the protection of
Muni, and do not harm the bats. A shrine to Muni is beneath the tree. If locals believe that they have offended Muni by failing to protect the bats, they will pray and perform
puja after offering sweet rice, coconut, and bananas to those attending the ceremony. Flying foxes are also featured in folk stories from Papua New Guinea. Stories with flying foxes include a legend about a
cockatoo stealing feathers from the flying fox, resulting in it becoming nocturnal. Another story features a flying fox that could transform into a young man; the flying fox stole a woman away from her husband to take as his wife. Another legend states that a flying fox-man was responsible for introducing
yams to their people. Indigenous societies in Oceania used parts of flying foxes for functional and ceremonial weapons. In the Solomon Islands, people created barbs out of their bones for use in spears. Flying fox wings were depicted on the war shields of the
Asmat people of Indonesia; they believed that the wings offered protection to their warriors. There are modern and historical references to flying fox byproducts used as currency. In New Caledonia, braided flying fox fur was once used as currency. On the island of
Makira, which is part of the Solomon Islands, indigenous peoples still hunt flying foxes for their teeth as well as for bushmeat. The
canine teeth are strung together on necklaces that are used as
currency. Teeth of the
insular flying fox are particularly prized, as they are usually large enough to drill holes in. The
Makira flying fox is also hunted, though, despite its smaller teeth. Deterring local peoples from using flying fox teeth as currency may be detrimental to the species, with Lavery and Fasi noting, "Species that provide an important cultural resource can be highly treasured." Emphasizing
sustainable hunting of flying foxes to preserve cultural currency may be more effective than encouraging the abandonment of cultural currency. Even if flying foxes were no longer hunted for their teeth, they would still be killed for bushmeat; therefore, retaining their cultural value may encourage sustainable hunting practices. Lavery stated, "It's a positive, not a negative, that their teeth are so culturally valuable. The practice of hunting bats shouldn't necessarily be stopped, it needs to be managed sustainably." ==References==