Age Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age. It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age. Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children. Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at The
Bush School of Government and Public Service at
Texas A&M, found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a young adult job applicant than an older job applicant. In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at
Ghent University, measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment. In a survey for the
University of Kent, England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for
gender or
racial discrimination.
Dominic Abrams, social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of
prejudice experienced in the UK population.
Caste According to
UNICEF and
Human Rights Watch,
caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa. , there were 200 million
Dalits or
Scheduled Castes (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.
Citizenship or nationality Discrimination on the basis of
nationality,
citizenship or
naturalization is usually included in
employment laws. It may vary from laws that regulate hiring and firing based on citizenship, to forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on immigration status. In the
GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only. Citizenship discrimination may show as a "level of acceptance" in a team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the citizenship of the majority of team members. Citizenship discrimination can be sometimes connected with racial discrimination although it can be separate.
Class Disability Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism. Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of “normal living”, results in public and private spaces, services, workplaces, and educational environments being designed primarily for “standard” users, which can exclude or disadvantage individuals with disabilities. Some studies have shown that employment can be beneficial for people with disabilities, helping to support mental health and overall well-being. Work may fulfill several basic needs, including social interaction, a sense of purpose, structured activity, and social status, thereby reducing social isolation. However, other research indicates that employment does not always produce positive outcomes, particularly when workplace environments fail to accommodate the specific needs of disabled individuals. In such cases, employment may contribute to stress, exclusion, or reduced well-being. Demographic changes, such as a decline in the working-age population in some regions, have also led to increased attention toward disabled individuals as participants in the labor market for economic reasons. Empirical research suggests that repeated exposure to ableist microaggressions may have cumulative psychological effects. Studies have linked these experiences to increased levels of psychological distress, reduced self-esteem, and a diminished sense of belonging, particularly among students in higher education settings. These findings indicate that discrimination is not limited to overt exclusion, but also operates through subtle, everyday interactions that can negatively impact well-being over time. Disability discrimination is also shaped by broader theoretical perspectives. The social model of disability emphasizes that disability arises not only from individual impairments but also from environmental, social, and institutional barriers that limit participation. This contrasts with the medical model, which focuses primarily on the individual’s condition. The social model has influenced policy, accessibility standards, and advocacy efforts aimed at reducing barriers and promoting equal participation. Some studies have shown that employment can be beneficial to people with disabilities, helping to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work can fulfil a number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity, therefore reducing social isolation. Other research shows that employment is not always beneficial, particularly if a disabled persons needs are not considered. A decline in the working age population, particularly in Europe, is resulting in disabled people being seen as more of a valuable resource, within the labour market, for economic reasons. In the United States, the
Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as the
Equality Act 2010 in the UK.
Excellence Language sometimes spray-paint or shoot traffic signs in
French.
Name Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation. Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that a person's name is one of the six things they focus on most. France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes. Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency. The effects of name discrimination based on a name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms.
Political views Political discrimination involves treating individuals or groups unfairly based on their political opinions, affiliations, or activities. While many international human rights instruments, such as the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, prohibit discrimination based on "political or other opinion," legal protections vary significantly by jurisdiction. In many historical and modern contexts, this discrimination manifests in two primary forms: •
Anti-leftism (or opposition to
left-wing politics) refers to the opposition, prejudice, or persecution of individuals and groups associated with left-wing views. Historical examples include the
McCarthyism in the United States, where individuals suspected of communist sympathies were blacklisted, and the
White Terror during and after the
Spanish Civil War. •
Anti-rightism (or opposition to
right-wing politics) refers to the opposition, prejudice, or persecution of individuals and groups associated with right-wing views. This has occurred in various
revolutionary states (e.g.
Reign of Terror,
Anti-Rightist Campaign, etc) or through social and professional exclusion in highly polarized environments. Studies in the 21st century, particularly in the
United States and
Europe, have shown that political affiliation can influence hiring decisions, social interactions, and access to services, a phenomenon often linked to increased
political polarization.
Race or ethnicity sign in
Pattaya Beach,
Thailand 1939 – "
No entrance for Poles!"|left graffiti in
Lithuania. The words read
Juden raus (German for
Jews out) and
Hasse (presumably a misspelling of
Hass, German for
hate). child at a segregated drinking fountain on a courthouse lawn,
North Carolina, US 1938 Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the
ethnic penalty. It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the
superiority of one
race over another. It may also mean
prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or
ethnicity. It has been official government policy in several countries, such as
South Africa during the
apartheid era. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic
Indians and Chinese in Malaysia The concept of multiracism has been used to explain the varieties of race discrimination. After the
Vietnam War, many
Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination. Westerners might get paid more than other immigrants in
GCC states.
Roma and
Sinti are considered one of the most discriminated ethnic groups in the world. They suffered from mass genocide, sterilization and enslavement. The Roma are suspiciously discriminated like the
Dom caste they descend from.
Rohingya people are also the world’s most discriminated-against ethnic group.
Native Americans experienced one of the largest genocides and ethnic cleansing in history.
Black people and
Jews are also vulnerable ethnic groups.
Region Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against
Americans who are from the
southern or
northern regions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences.
Religious beliefs in order to preserve
Bhutan's Buddhist culture and identity. in the 2010s Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given
religion. For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under
Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to the Christian population. Restrictions on the types of occupations that
Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and
moneylending, occupations that were only tolerated as a "
necessary evil". The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in
ghettos and banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non-
Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter
Mecca and
Medina. In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($320 to $1,300), and deportation. In Myanmar, 600,000
Rohingya muslims have been forced to become refugees in Bangladesh due to institutionalised religious discrimination, in law, policy and practice. An example is the government refusing to grant them citizenship, making them stateless without legal documentation. In 2015
Buddhist nationalists protested their right to vote in a constitutional referendum. In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the
civil rights which are guaranteed by the
Fourteenth Amendment. Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for
Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the
First Amendment), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom".
Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked to
stereotypes and
gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another. Extreme sexism may foster
sexual harassment,
rape, and other forms of
sexual violence. Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their
gender identity or their gender or sex differences. Gender discrimination is connected to
workplace inequality.
Intersex persons experience
discrimination due to innate, atypical
sex characteristics. Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of
intersex status or
sex characteristics. South Africa was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'. Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'. Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons. Global efforts such as the United Nations
Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex.
Sexual orientation carrying a banner with the flags of over 70 countries where
homosexuality is illegal against
Uganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill One's
sexual orientation is a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality". Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called
homophobia. Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against
asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people.
Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing a lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in
Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium. In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages. Besides these academic studies, in 2009,
ILGA published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College in
Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider
homosexuality illegal, five carry the
death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia". This happens in
Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority. On February 5, 2005, the
IRIN issued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things that
honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection. In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being
gay in Iraq, including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men laxatives. Although gay marriage has been legal in
South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African". Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the
Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault. is the
world's largest LGBT event. Regional variation exists with respect to
tolerance, the
antithesis of discrimination, in different parts of the world. A number of countries, especially those in the
Western world, have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay
hate crimes and workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, the
United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights.
Reverse discrimination s in Brazil: "
Quer uma vaga? Passe no vestibular!" ("Do you want a spot? Pass the entrance exam!")
Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group. This discrimination may seek to redress
social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by the majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities. Conceptualizing
affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in the early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world. ==Anti-discrimination laws==