ian spearmen advancing in close formation with large shields –
Stele of the Vultures,
Europe Classical antiquity Ancient Greeks The spear is the main weapon of the warriors of
Homer's
Iliad. The use of both a single thrusting spear and two throwing spears are mentioned. It has been suggested that two styles of combat are being described; an early style, with thrusting spears, dating to the
Mycenaean period in which the Iliad is set, and, anachronistically, a later style, with throwing spears, from Homer's own
Archaic period. In the 7th century BC, the Greeks evolved a new close-order infantry formation, the
phalanx. The key to this formation was the
hoplite, who was equipped with a large, circular, bronze-faced shield (
aspis) and a spear with an iron head and bronze butt-spike (
doru). The hoplite phalanx dominated warfare among the Greek City States from the 7th into the 4th century BC. The 4th century saw major changes. One was the greater use of
peltasts, light infantry armed with spear and javelins. The other was the development of the
sarissa, a two-handed pike in length, by the
Macedonians under
Phillip of Macedon and
Alexander the Great. The pike phalanx, supported by peltasts and cavalry, became the dominant mode of warfare among the Greeks from the late 4th century onward until Greek military systems were supplanted by the
Roman legions.
Ancient Romans '' In the
pre-Marian Roman armies, the first two lines of battle, the
hastati and
principes, often fought with a sword called a
gladius and
pila, heavy javelins that were specifically designed to be thrown at an enemy to pierce and foul a target's shield. Originally, the
principes were armed with a short spear called a
hasta, but these gradually fell out of use, eventually being replaced by the
gladius. The third line, the
triarii, continued to use the
hasta. From the late 2nd century BC, all
legionaries were equipped with the
pilum. The
pilum continued to be the standard legionary spear until the end of the 2nd century AD.
Auxilia, however, were equipped with a simple hasta and, perhaps, javelins or darts. During the 3rd century AD, although the
pilum continued to be used, legionaries usually were equipped with other forms of throwing and thrusting spear, similar to
auxilia of the previous century. By the 4th century, the
pilum had effectively disappeared from common use. In the late period of the
Roman Empire, the spear became more often used because of its anti-cavalry capacities as the barbarian invasions were often conducted by people with a developed culture of cavalry in warfare.
Medieval period ,
Lithuania After the fall of the
Western Roman Empire, the spear and shield continued to be used by nearly all Western European cultures. Since a medieval spear required only a small amount of
steel along the sharpened edges (most of the spear-tip was wrought iron), it was an economical weapon. Quick to manufacture, and needing less
smithing skill than a sword, it remained the main weapon of the common soldier. The
Vikings, for instance, although often portrayed with an
axe,
sword, or lance in hand, were armed mostly with spears, as were their
Anglo-Saxon,
Irish, or continental contemporaries. Spears eventually evolved into lances; this is where the lance depiction comes from. With a good majority of Medieval weapons being spears they became integrated into many war tactics. Spears were very commonly used while providing a defensive block. When men on horses tried to get by these blocks, they would often be killed by the spears that could poke through the
shield walls. Spears became more common than swords and axes because of how cheap, long, and fast spears were made.
Infantry Broadly speaking, spears were either designed to be used in melee, or to be thrown. Within this simple classification, there was a remarkable range of types. For example, M. J. Swanton identified thirty different spearhead categories and sub-categories in early Saxon England. Most medieval spearheads were generally leaf-shaped. Notable types of early medieval spears include the
angon, a throwing spear with a long head similar to the Roman
pilum, used by the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, and the
winged (or lugged) spear, which had two prominent wings at the base of the spearhead, either to prevent the spear penetrating too far into an enemy or to aid in spear fencing. Originally a Frankish weapon, the winged spear also was popular with the Vikings. It would become the ancestor of later medieval polearms, such as the
partisan and
spetum. The thrusting spear also has the advantage of reach, being considerably longer than other weapon types. Exact spear lengths are hard to deduce as few spear shafts survive archaeologically, but would seem to have been the average length. Some nations were noted for their long spears, including the Scots and the Flemish. Spears usually were used in tightly ordered formations, such as the shield wall or the
schiltron. To resist cavalry, spear shafts could be planted against the ground. William Wallace drew up his schiltrons in a circle at the
Battle of Falkirk in 1298 to deter charging cavalry; this was a widespread tactic sometimes known as the "crown" formation.
Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray used a circular schiltron on the first day of the
Battle of Bannockburn. However, the rectangular schiltron was much more common and was used by King
Robert the Bruce on the second day of the
Battle of Bannockburn and in the
Battle of Old Byland when he defeated English armies. Throwing spears became rarer as the
Middle Ages drew on, but survived in the hands of specialists such as the Catalan
Almogavars. They were commonly used in Ireland until the end of the 16th century. Spears began to lose fashion among the infantry during the 14th century, being replaced by
polearms that combined the thrusting properties of the spear with the cutting properties of the axe, such as the
halberd. Where spears were retained they grew in length, eventually evolving into
pikes, which would be a dominant infantry weapon in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Cavalry Cavalry spears were originally the same as infantry spears and were often used with two hands or held with one hand overhead. In the 12th century, after the adoption of
stirrups and a high-cantled saddle, the spear became a decidedly more powerful weapon. A mounted knight would secure the lance by holding it with one hand and tucking it under the armpit (the
couched lance technique) In combination with a
lance rest, this allowed all the momentum of the horse and knight to be focused on the weapon's tip, whilst still retaining accuracy and control. This use of the spear spurred the development of the lance as a distinct weapon that was perfected in the medieval sport of
jousting. In the 14th century, tactical developments meant that knights and men-at-arms often fought on foot. This led to the practice of shortening the lance to about to make it more manageable. As dismounting became commonplace, specialist polearms such as the
pollaxe were adopted by knights and this practice ceased.
Introduction of gunpowder The development of both the long, two-handed
pike and
gunpowder firearms in Renaissance Europe saw an ever-increasing focus on integrated infantry tactics. Those infantry not armed with these weapons carried variations on the polearm, including the
halberd and the
bill. At the start of the Renaissance, cavalry remained predominantly lance-armed;
gendarmes with the heavy knightly lance and lighter cavalry with a variety of lighter lances. By the 1540s, however, pistol-armed cavalry called
reiters were beginning to make their mark. Cavalry armed with pistols and other lighter firearms, along with a sword, had virtually replaced lance armed cavalry in Western Europe by the beginning of the 17th century. Ultimately, the spear proper was rendered obsolete on the battlefield. Its last flowering was the half-pike or
spontoon, a shortened version of the pike carried by officers of various ranks. While originally a weapon, this came to be seen more as a badge of office, or
leading staff by which troops were directed. The half-pike, sometimes known as a boarding pike, was also used as a weapon on board ships until the late 19th century.
Middle East Modern era Muslim warriors used a spear that was called an
az-zaġāyah.
Berbers pronounced it
zaġāya, but the English term, derived from the
Old French via
Berber, is "
assegai". It is a polearm used for throwing or hurling, usually a light spear or javelin made of hard wood and pointed with a forged iron tip. The
az-zaġāyah played an important role during the
Islamic conquest as well as during later periods, well into the 20th century. A longer pole
az-zaġāyah was being used as a hunting weapon from horseback. The
az-zaġāyah was widely used. It existed in various forms in areas stretching from
Southern Africa to the
Indian subcontinent, although these places already had their own variants of the spear. This javelin was the weapon of choice during the
Fulani jihad as well as during the
Mahdist War in Sudan. It is still being used by certain wandering Sufi ascetics
(Derwishes).
Asia China In the
Chinese martial arts, the
Chinese spear or () is popularly known as the "king of weapons". The spear is listed as one of the Four Weapons, alongside the (
staff), the (single-edged blade, often similar to a
sabre), and the (double-edged blade, a form of
sword). Spears were used first as hunting weapons amongst the ancient Chinese. They became popular as infantry weapons during the
Warring States and
Qin era, when spearmen were used as especially highly disciplined soldiers in organized group attacks. When used in formation fighting, spearmen would line up their large rectangular or circular shields in a shieldwall manner. The Qin also employed long spears (more akin to a pike) in formations similar to Swiss pikemen in order to ward off cavalry. The Han Empire would use similar tactics as its Qin predecessors. Halberds, polearms, and dagger axes were also common weapons during this time. Spears were also common weaponry for Warring States, Qin, and Han era cavalry units. During these eras, the spear would develop into a longer lance-like weapon used for cavalry charges. There are many words in Chinese that would be classified as a spear in English. The
Mao (
矛) is the predecessor of the
Qiang. The first bronze
Mao appeared in the
Shang dynasty. This weapon was less prominent on the battlefield than the
ge (
dagger-axe). In some archaeological examples two tiny holes or ears can be found in the blade of the spearhead near the socket, these holes were presumably used to attach tassels, much like modern day
wushu spears. In the early
Shang, the
Mao appeared to have a relatively short shaft as well as a relatively narrow shaft as opposed to
Mao in the later Shang and
Western Zhou period. Some
Mao from this era are heavily decorated as is evidenced by a
Warring States period Mao from the
Ba Shu area. In the Han dynasty the
Mao and the
Ji (戟
Ji can be loosely defined as a halberd) rose to prominence in the military. Interesting to note is that the amount of iron Mao-heads found exceeds the number of bronze heads. By the end of the Han dynasty (
Eastern Han) the process of replacement of the iron
Mao had been completed and the bronze
Mao had been rendered completely obsolete. After the Han dynasty toward the
Sui and
Tang dynasties the
Mao used by cavalry were fitted with much longer shafts, as is mentioned above. During this era, the use of the
Shuo (矟) was widespread among the footmen. The
Shuo can be likened to a pike or simply a long spear. After the Tang dynasty, the popularity of the
Mao declined and was replaced by the
Qiang (枪). The Tang dynasty divided the
Qiang in four categories: "一曰漆枪， 二曰木枪， 三曰白杆枪， 四曰扑头枪。” Roughly translated the four categories are: Qi (a kind of wood) Spears, Wooden Spears, Bai Gan (A kind of wood) Spears and Pu Tou Qiang. The Qiang that were produced in the Song and Ming dynasties consisted of four major parts: Spearhead, Shaft, End Spike and Tassel. The types of Qiang that exist are many. Among the types there are cavalry Qiang that were the length of one
zhang (approximately ), Litte-Flower Spears (Xiao Hua Qiang 小花枪) that are the length of one person and their arm extended above his head, double hooked spears, single hooked spears, ringed spears and many more. There is some confusion as to how to distinguish the
Qiang from the
Mao, as they are obviously very similar. Some people say that a
Mao is longer than a
Qiang, others say that the main difference is between the stiffness of the shaft, where the
Qiang would be flexible and the
Mao would be stiff. Scholars seem to lean toward the latter explanation more than the former. Because of the difference in the construction of the
Mao and the
Qiang, the usage is also different, though there is no definitive answer as to what exactly the differences are between the
Mao and the
Qiang. Despite their obsolence, spears remained in use with the
Qing Army in the late 19th century: during the
First Sino-Japanese War, 40% of Imperial soldiers didn't have rifles or even muskets. Spears and other melee weapons were also widely used by the
Boxers during their
eponymous rebellion. During the
Warlord Era, the army of warlord
Sun Chuanfang had units armed only with spears to oppose
Chiang Kai Shek's
Northern Expedition as a stopgap measure until he could import more rifles. The
Chinese Red Army guerillas often made use of spears against the Japanese occupation forces during the
Second Sino-Japanese War, while several Japanese puppet government troops had to make do with bamboo spears. During the
Chinese Civil War, both Communist and
Nationalist forces made use of spears, the latter mostly due Chiang's refusal to supply local commanders with rifles to prevent potential rivals from raising well-armed militias and challenging his authority.
India Spears are known as
Bhala in Indian languages. Spears in the
Indian society were used both in missile and non-missile form, both by cavalry and foot-soldiers. Mounted spear-fighting was practiced using with a , ball-tipped wooden lance called a
bothati, the end of which was covered in dye so that hits may be confirmed. Spears were constructed from a variety of materials such as the
sang made completely of steel, and the
ballam which had a bamboo shaft. The Arab presence in Sindh and the Mameluks of Delhi introduced the Middle Eastern javelin into India. The Rajputs wielded a type of spear for infantrymen which had a club integrated into the spearhead, and a pointed butt end. Other spears had forked blades, several spear-points, and numerous other innovations. One particular spear unique to India was the vita or corded lance. Used by the
Maratha Army, it had a rope connecting the spear with the user's wrist, allowing the weapon to be thrown and pulled back. The
Vel is a type of spear or lance, originated in
Southern India, primarily used by
Tamils. Sikh
Nihangs sometimes carry a spear even today. Spears were used in conflicts and training by armed paramilitary units such as the
razakars of
Nizams of
Hyderabad State as late as the second half of the 20th century.
Japan print of a samurai general holding a yari in his right hand The
hoko spear was used in ancient Japan sometime between the
Yayoi period and the
Heian period, but it became unpopular as early
samurai often acted as
horseback archers. Medieval Japan employed spears again for infantrymen to use, but it was not until the 11th century in that samurai began to prefer spears over bows. Several polearms were used in the Japanese theatres; the
naginata was a glaive-like weapon with a long, curved blade popularly among the samurai and the
Buddhist warrior-monks, often used against cavalry; the
yari was a longer polearm, with a straight-bladed spearhead, which became the weapon of choice of both the samurai and the
ashigaru (footmen) during the
Warring States Era; the horseback samurai used shorter yari for his single-armed combat; on the other hand, ashigaru infantries used long yari (similar with European
pike) for their massed combat formation.
Philippines Filipino spears (
sibat) were used as both a weapon and a tool throughout the
Philippines. It is also called a
bangkaw (after the
Bankaw Revolt.),
sumbling or
palupad in the islands of
Visayas and
Mindanao. Sibat are typically made from rattan, either with a sharpened tip or a head made from metal. These heads may either be single-edged, double-edged or barbed. Styles vary according to function and origin. For example, a sibat designed for fishing may not be the same as those used for hunting. The spear was used as the primary weapon in expeditions and battles against neighbouring island kingdoms and it became famous during the 1521
Battle of Mactan, where the chieftain
Lapu Lapu of
Cebu fought against Spanish forces led by
Ferdinand Magellan who was subsequently killed.
Africa South Africa man with
iklwa, 1917 The various types of the
assegai (a light spear or
javelin made of
wood and pointed with
iron or fire-hardened tip) were used throughout Africa and it was the most common weapon used before the introduction of
firearms. The
Zulu,
Xhosa and other
Nguni tribes of South Africa were renowned for their use of the assegai.
Shaka of the
Zulu invented a shorter stabbing spear with a shaft and a larger, broader blade one foot (0.3m) long. This weapon is otherwise known as the
iklwa or
ixwa, after the sound that was heard as it was withdrawn from the victim's wound. The traditional spear was not abandoned, but was used to range attack enemy formations before closing in for
close-quarters battle with the iklwa. This tactical combination originated during
Shaka's military reforms. This weapon was typically used with one hand while the off hand held a
cowhide shield for protection.
Egypt Similar to most armies of their period,
Ancient Egyptian forces were centered around the use of the spear. In battle, spearmen would be armed with a
bronze-tipped spear (dja) and shield (ikem), which were used in elaborate formations much like Greek and Roman forces. Before the
Hyksos invasion into Egypt, wooden spears were used, which were prone to splinter, but the influx of a new population brought innovations around bronze technology. Unlike other cultures who wielded spears at this time, the Egyptians did not treat their
javelins (around 1 meter to 3.3 feet long)
The Americas West Mexico and South America (Pre-Colombia) As advanced
metallurgy was largely unknown in
pre-Columbian America outside of
Western Mexico and South America, most weapons in
Meso-America were made of wood or
obsidian. This did not mean that they were less lethal, as obsidian may be sharpened to become many times sharper than steel. Meso-American spears varied greatly in shape and size. While the Aztecs preferred the sword-like
macuahuitl clubs for fighting, the advantage of a far-reaching thrusting weapon was recognised, and a large portion of the army would carry the
tepoztopilli into battle. The tepoztopilli was a polearm, and to judge from depictions in various Aztec codices, it was roughly the height of a man, with a broad wooden head about twice the length of the users' palm or shorter, edged with razor-sharp obsidian blades which were deeply set in grooves carved into the head, and cemented in place with
bitumen or plant resin as an adhesive. The tepoztopilli was able both to thrust and slash effectively. Throwing spears also were used extensively in Meso-American warfare, usually with the help of an
atlatl. Throwing spears were typically shorter and more stream-lined than the tepoztopilli, and some had obsidian edges for greater penetration.
Native Americans Typically, most spears made by Native Americans were created from materials surrounding their communities. Usually, the shaft of the spear was made with a wooden stick while the head of the spear was fashioned from arrowheads, pieces of metal such as copper, or a bone that had been sharpened. Spears were a preferred weapon by many since it was inexpensive to create, could more easily be taught to others, and could be made quickly and in large quantities. Native Americans used the
buffalo pound method to kill buffalo, which required a hunter to dress as a buffalo and lure one into a ravine where other hunters were hiding. Once the buffalo appeared, the other hunters would kill him with spears. A variation of this technique, called the
buffalo jump, was when a runner would lead the animals towards a cliff. As the buffalo got close to the cliff, other members of the tribe would jump out from behind rocks or trees and scare the buffalo over the cliff. Other hunters would be waiting at the bottom of the cliff to spear the animal to death. ==Hunting==