In India Pre-historic period (before 4th century BCE) Archaeological evidence suggests the region was first inhabited by hominids over 400 millennia ago. Artifacts recovered in
Adichanallur by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicate
megalithic urn burials, dating from back to 1500 BCE. which are also described in early Tamil literature. Excavations at
Keezhadi have revealed a large urban settlement, with the earliest artefact dated to 580 BCE, during the time of urbanization in the
Indo-Gangetic plain. Epigraphical inscriptions found at Adichanallur and potsherds uncovered from Keezhadi use
Tamil Brahmi, a rudimentary script dated to 6th century BCE.
Sangam period (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE) during
Sangam period The
Sangam period lasted from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE with the main source of history during the period coming from the various
Sangam literature. Ancient
Tamilakam was ruled by a
triumvirate of monarchical states,
Cheras,
Cholas and
Pandyas. These kings are referred to as
Vāṉpukaḻ Mūvar (Three glorified by heaven) in the Sangam literature. The Cheras controlled the western part of Tamilkam, the Pandyas controlled the south, and the Cholas had their base in the
Kaveri delta. They are mentioned in the inscriptions from the
Mauryan Empire dated to third century BCE.
Kalinga inscriptions from the second century BCE refers to a confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms. The three kings called
Vendhar ruled over several hill tribes headed by the
Velir chiefs and settlements headed by clan chiefs called
Kizhar. The rulers of smaller territories were referred to as
Kurunilamannar, with
Purananuru mentioning the names of many such chieftains. The Sangam period rulers patronized multiple religions including
vedic religion,
Buddhism and
Jainism and sponsored some of the earliest Tamil literature with the oldest surviving work being
Tolkāppiyam, a book of Tamil grammar.
Purananuru describes the public life and various unique cultural practices that existed during the period. The text talks about the
Vedic Sacrifices performed by the kings as described in the
Vedas and the rituals performed for the dead. '' Agriculture was an important occupation during the period, and there is evidence that networks of
irrigation channels were built as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Sangam literature describe fertile lands and people organised into various occupational groups. The governance of the land was through hereditary monarchies, although the sphere of the state's activities and the extent of the ruler's powers were limited through the adherence to an established order. The kingdoms had significant diplomatic and trade contacts with other kingdoms to the north and with the
Romans.
Roman coins and other epigraphical evidence from South India and
potsherds with Tamil writing found in excavations along the
Red Sea indicate the presence of
Roman commerce with the ancient Tamilakam. Much of the commerce from the Romans and
Han China were facilitated via seaports including
Muziris and
Korkai with
spices being the most prized goods along with
pearls and
silk. There is evidence of emissaries sent to the Roman Emperor Augustus by the Pandya kings.
Medieval era (4th–13th century CE) monuments in
Mahabalipuram built by the
Pallavas in 7th-8th century CE From the fourth century CE, the region was ruled by the
Kalabhras, warriors belonging to the
Vellalar community, who were once feudatories of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms. The Kalabhra era is referred to as the "dark period" of Tamil history, and information about it is generally inferred from any mentions in the literature and inscriptions that are dated many centuries after their era ended. Around the seventh century CE, the Kalabhras were overthrown by the Pandyas and Cholas. Though they existed previously, the period saw the rise of the
Pallavas in the sixth century CE under
Mahendravarman I, who ruled parts of
South India with
Kanchipuram as their capital. The Pallavas were noted for their patronage of architecture. The area west of the
Western Ghats became increasingly distinct from the eastern parts. A new language
Malayalam evolved from Tamil in the region and the socio-cultural transformation was altered further by the migration of
Sanskrit-speaking
Indo-Aryans from Northern India in the eighth century CE. at its greatest extent, during the reign of
Rajendra Chola I in 1030 The Cholas were revived in the ninth century CE by
Vijayalaya Chola and the last Pallavas ruler
Aparajitavarman was defeated by the Chola prince
Aditya I. After the defeat of the Pallavas, the Cholas became the dominant kingdom with the capital at
Thanjavur. The Chola influence expanded subsequently with
Rajaraja I conquering the entire Southern India and parts of present-day
Sri Lanka and
Maldives, and increased Chola influence across the
Indian Ocean in the eleventh century CE. Rajaraja brought in administrative reforms including the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual administrative units. Under his son
Rajendra Chola I, the Chola empire reached its zenith and stretched as far as
Bengal in the north and across the Indian Ocean. He defeated the
Eastern Chalukyas and the
Chola navy invaded the
Srivijaya Empire in South East Asia. The Cholas had trade links with the Chinese
Song Dynasty and across Southeast Asia. The Cholas built many temples with the most notable being the
Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur. The latter half of the eleventh century saw the union of Chola and
Vengi kingdoms under
Kulottunga I. The Cholas repulsed attacks from the
Western Chalukyas and maintained its influence over the various kingdoms of Southeast Asia. According to historian
Nilakanta Sastri, Kulottunga avoided unnecessary wars and had a long and prosperous reign characterized by unparalleled success that laid the foundations of the empire for the next 150 years. in 13th century CE The eventual decline of Chola power began towards the end of
Kulottunga III's reign in the thirteenth century CE. Though the Cholas were revived briefly with the aid of
Hoysalas, civil war between Rajaraja and
Rajendra III weakened them further. With the Hoysalas later siding with the Pandyas, the Pandyas consolidated control over the region. The Pandya empire reached its zenith in the thirteenth century CE under
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I after he defeated the Hoysalas, the
Kakatiyas and captured parts of Sri Lanka. The Pandyas ruled from their capital of
Madurai and expanded trade links with other maritime empires.
Venetian explorer
Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence. The Pandyas also built a number of temples including the
Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai. In the fourteenth century CE, the Pandyan empire was engulfed in a civil war and also faced repeated invasions by the
Delhi Sultanate. In 1335, the Pandyan capital was conquered by
Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan and the short-lived
Madurai Sultanate was established.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (14th–17th century CE) The
Vijayanagara kingdom was founded in . The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country by and ruled for almost two centuries. In the sixteenth century, Vijaynagara king
Krishnadeva Raya was forced to intervene in the conflict between their vassals, the Cholas and the Pandyas. The
Nayak governor under Raya briefly took control of Madurai before it was restored to the empire. The Vijayanagara empire was defeated in the
Battle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy of
Deccan sultanates. The Nayaks, who were the military governors in the Vijaynagara empire, took control of the region amongst whom the
Nayaks of Madurai and
Nayaks of Thanjavur were the most prominent. They introduced the
palayakkararar system and re-constructed some of the temples in Tamil Nadu including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.
Later conflicts and European colonization (17th to 20th century CE) with
Fort St. George by Jan Van Ryne (1754) In the 18th century, the
Mughal Empire administered the region through the
Nawab of the Carnatic with his seat at
Arcot, who defeated the Madurai Nayaks. The
Marathas attacked several times and defeated the Nawab after the
Siege of Trichinopoly (1751-1752). This led to a short-lived
Thanjavur Maratha kingdom. Europeans started to establish trade centres from the 16th century along the eastern coast. The
Portuguese arrived in 1522 followed by the
Dutch and the
Danes. In 1639, the
British East India Company obtained a grant for land from the Vijayanager emperor and the
French established trading posts at
Pondichéry in 1693. After several conflicts between the British and the French, the British established themselves as the major power in the eighteenth century CE. The British regained control of Madras in 1749 through the
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle and resisted a
French siege attempt in 1759. The British East India Company demanded tax collection rights, which led to constant conflicts with the local
Palaiyakkarars and resulted in the
Polygar Wars.
Puli Thevar was one of the earliest opponents, joined later by
Rani Velu Nachiyar and
Kattabomman in the first series of Polygar wars. The
Maruthu brothers along with
Oomaithurai, formed a coalition with
Dheeran Chinnamalai and Kerala Varma
Pazhassi Raja, which fought the British in the Second Polygar War. In the later 18th century, the
Mysore kingdom captured parts of the region and engaged in constant fighting with the British which culminated in the four
Anglo-Mysore Wars. By the late eighteenth century CE, the British had conquered most of the region and established the
Madras Presidency with Madras as the capital. On 10 July 1806, the
Vellore mutiny, which was the first instance of a large-scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company, took place in
Vellore Fort. After the
Indian Rebellion of 1857, the
British Parliament passed the
Government of India Act 1858, which transferred the governance of India from the East India Company to the British crown, forming the
British Raj. Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the
Ryotwari system resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, the
Great Famine of 1876–78 and the
Indian famine of 1896–97 which killed millions and the migration of many Tamils as bonded laborers to other British countries eventually forming the present
Tamil diaspora. The
Indian Independence movement gathered momentum in the early 20th century with the formation of the
Indian National Congress, which was based on an idea propagated by the members of the
Theosophical Society movement after a Theosophical convention held in Madras in December 1884. Various Tamils were contributors to the Independence movement including
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai,
Subramaniya Siva and
Bharatiyar. The Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the
Indian National Army (INA), founded by
Subhas Chandra Bose.
Post Indian Independence (1947–present) After the
Independence of India in 1947, the Madras Presidency became
Madras state, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of
Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and
Kerala. The state was further re-organised as a state for Tamils when the boundaries were redrawn linguistically in
1956 into the current shape. On 14 January 1969, Madras state was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country". In 1965, Tamils
agitated against the
imposition of Hindi and in support of continuing English as a medium of communication which eventually led to English being retained as an official language of India alongside Hindi. After experiencing fluctuations in the decades immediately after Indian independence, the
Human Development Index of the Tamils have consistently improved due to
reform-oriented economic policies and in the 2000s, the region has become one of the most urbanized states in the country.
In Sri Lanka Pre-Anuradhapura period (before fifth century CE) . There are various theories from scholars over the presence of Tamil people in Sri Lanka. Historian
K. Indrapala states that Tamil replaced a previous language of an indigenous mesolithic population, who later became the Eelam Tamils and the cultural diffusion happened well before the arrival of
Sinhalese people in Sri Lanka. Eelam Tamils consider themselves lineal descendants of the aboriginal
Naga and
Yaksha people of Sri Lanka. A
cobra totem known as
Nakam in the Tamil language is still part of the Tamil tradition in Sri Lanka. Remains of settlements and megalithic burial sites of people culturally similar to those of present-day Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu in modern India have been excavated at Pomparippu on the west coast and in
Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. These epigraphical evidence have been dated to a period between fifth century BCE and second century CE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archeologists to the beginning of the
Iron Age in the region around twelfth century BCE. There were specific migration routes that extended from South India to the island. These people moved further to the South of the island, and intermingled with the existent people.
Anuradhapura period (4th century BCE to 10th century CE) Black and red ware potsherds found in Sri Lanka from the early reign of
Anuradhapura kingdom, indicate a similar cultural connection with the people of South India. The
Tamil Brahmi inscriptions on them indicate Tamil clan names such as
Parumakal,
Ay,
Vel,
Utiyan,
Ticaiyan,
Cuda and
Naka, which points to the presence of Tamils in the region. Excavations in
Poonakari in the north of the island have yielded several inscriptions including the mention of
vela, a name related to
velirs of the ancient Tamil country. Chola king
Ellalan captured the Anuradhapura Kingdom from 205 BCE to 161 BCE. Tamil soldiers from Tamilakam came to Anuradhapura in large numbers in the seventh century CE with the local chiefs and kings relying on them. In the eighth century CE, various Tamil villages collectively known as
Demel-kaballa (Tamil allotment),
Demelat-valademin (Tamil villages), and
Demel-gam-bim (Tamil villages and lands) were established. In the ninth and tenth centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions started in the island which culminated with the Chola annexation of the island. King
Cankili I resisted contacts with the Portuguese and repelled
Parava Catholics who were brought from India to the
Mannar Island to take over the lucrative pearl fisheries from the Jaffna kings. The wrested Mannar during the
first invasion in 1560 and killed king
Puvirasa Pandaram during the
second expedition in 1591. After the conflicts, the Portuguese
secured the kingdom in 1619 from the unpopular
Cankili II, who was helped by the Thanjavur Nayaks. English sailor
Robert Knox arrived in the island in 1669 and described the Tamil settlements in the
An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon published in 1681. The
Dutch captured the island later and ruled for more than a century. Following the
1795 invasion of the British and the
Kandyan Wars, the island came to the control of the British in the early nineteenth century CE. Upon arrival in June 1799,
Hugh Cleghorn, the island's first British colonial secretary, wrote to the British government: "Two different nations from a very ancient period have divided between them the possession of the island. First the Sinhalese, inhabiting the interior in its Southern and Western parts, and secondly the Tamils who possess the Northern and Eastern districts. These two nations differ entirely in their religion, language, and manners." Irrespective of the ethnic differences, the British imposed a unitary state structure in
British Ceylon for better administration. During the British colonial rule, Tamils held higher positions in the government and were favoured by the British for their qualification in English education. In the northern highlands, the lands of the Sinhalese were seized by the British and
Indian Tamils were settled there as plantation workers. Tamils who migrated in the nineteenth century CE to work on tea plantations were later termed as the
Indian Tamils.
Post Sri Lankan independence (1948–present) Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948 and after the colonial rule ended, ethnic tension rose between the Sinhalese, who constituted a majority, and the Tamils. More than a million Indian Tamil plantation workers were made stateless after Sri Lanka refused citizenship to them. In 1964, the
Sri Lankan and
Indian governments entered into an agreement, based on which, about 300,000 would be granted Sri Lankan citizenship and about 975,000 Tamils would be
repatriated to India over a period of fifteen years. This led to the bloody
Sri Lankan Civil War for more than three decades. The conflict resulted in the deaths of at least 100,000 Tamils in the island and led to the flight of over 800,000 refugees. The war ended after the
Sri Lankan military offensive in 2009. Since the end of the civil war, the Sri Lankan state has been subject to much global criticism for violating
human rights as a result of committing
war crimes through bombing civilian targets, usage of heavy weaponry, the
abduction and
massacres of Sri Lankan Tamils and
sexual violence. == Geographic distribution ==