The earliest traces of human settlement found at Tel Yokneam are from the
Chalcolithic period (4500–3300
BCE). They consist only of a few cone-shaped vessels and jar handles. No architectural features can be attributed to the chalcolithic settlement, if one existed. Unexcavated areas of the site may hold more significant remains of this period, as excavations to date have reached bedrock in a very limited location only. There is a gap in the archaeological record of at least a century between the Early Bronze Age and later remains.
Middle Bronze Age The Middle Bronze Age remains at Tel Yokneam were found directly on the limestone bedrock. In the Middle Bronze, Yokneam can be divided into Strata XXV–XXI, with the earliest architectural remains uncovered dating to MB IIA. Form strata XXIV (MB IIA) to the end of MB IIB, Yoqneam was fortified with three successive fortifications systems. The city was unfortified in the MB IIC (Stratum XXI).
Early settlement and burial cave Underneath the wall of Yokneam which was constructed sometime before between the 20th and 18th century BCE, a layer of burnet mudbrick material (different than the material used in the later period) mixed with potsherds, bones and ash. It appears that these are the remains of structures made out of mudbrick. The presence of ash and the skeleton of a young male may indicate that this settlement was violently destroyed by fire. Around these remains were two openings to a burial cave. The settlement and burial cave are dated to the Middle Bronze Age IIA period (2000–1800 BCE). or tombs, with offerings laid beside the bodies. One notable offering was an artistic vessel in the shape of what appears to be a donkey, from whose mouth liquid could be poured. A layer of dirt
fill separates the Middle and Late Bronze Age phases on the site. The settlement above that fill presents a completely new urban plan compared to that of the earlier habitation.'''
Late Bronze Age Late Bronze Age Yokneam lasted from the 15th to the 13th century BCE. The well-preserved houses excavated from this period contained an abundance of pottery, including a collection of
Chocolate-on-white ware. Some of these
artifacts were imports from foreign lands, including
Cyprus and
Mycenae. Two Egyptian tools were found, although it is not clear whether these are originals or locally made copies. Silver earrings, typical of the
Mitanni culture, were also found. Late Bronze Age Yokneam may be identified with one of the city-states mentioned in the
Amarna letters (1360–1332 BCE). A
petrographic study of the letters suggests that Yokneam was a city-state, and that one of its kings was called Ba'lu-mehir (
mehir is a
West Semitic word for "warrior"). Ba'lu-mehir sent four letters, written on clay tablets. The association with Yokneam is based on indications that the material for the tablets was mined in one of two specific locations on Mount Carmel. One of these is located only from Tel Yokneam. In one of the letters, the city named is G-ma-te. The relationship between the name G-ma-te and 'En-qn'mu or Yokneam is unclear.
Destruction Archaeological investigations suggest that the city was destroyed in a large fire sometime between the second half of the 13th century BCE and the beginning of the 12th century BCE. Late Bronze Age Yokneam's destruction by fire, as with many other
Ancient Near Eastern cities, occurred during a period known as the
Late Bronze Age collapse, which marks the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. Ceramic evidence does not permit precise dating of the razing of the city, which occurred between 1350 and 1200 BCE. One notable structure of that period is known as the "House of Oil", as the tools and
olive pits found in it indicate it was an
oil mill. The house is connected to a cave, in which the residents buried their dead. The destruction of Yokneam in the Late Bronze Age, and its establishment during the
Iron Age I period, can be associated with the conquests of the
Israelites under
Joshua. which may explain the destruction of the Late Bronze Age city. Later, it is mentioned as a city in the territory of the
Tribe of Zebulun, settled by members of the
Merarite clan of the
Tribe of Levi. Despite the biblical account, on the basis of Phoenician and Philistine pottery finds, archaeologists have theorized that the city was rebuilt by the Canaanites with the help of the Phoenicians and Philistines in order to block Israelite access to the
Via Maris trade route. The most probable reason for the destruction was the invasion of
Aram-Damascus, under King
Hazael, who reigned from 842 to 796 BCE. The city was rebuilt during the occupation. After this phase only a small settlement remained, and the fortifications were no longer in use. The identity of its inhabitants between the end of the 8th century BCE and the 7th century BCE is unknown. 70% of the pottery identified there consisted of storage jars, indicating that the area studied was the city's storage area. A comparative study of the pottery from this period indicates that the site was settled somewhere around the late 5th century BCE, but this study relies on the small quantity of pottery found in Yokneam. At some point, the structures were modified and the terraces were destroyed. The structures featured Phoenician-style architecture, which was quite common during that period. Personal names on pottery, written in
Aramaic, include names of Hebrew, Persian, and Phoenician origin, indicating that Yokneam was a cosmopolitan city during the Persian period. Signs of a large fire are seen in one of the structures, where complete storage jars were found. This suggests the settlement's sudden destruction by fire. This violent destruction may be attributed to conflicts between the Persians and the Egyptians over the control of the land, and can be dated to 380 BCE. Over 20 jar-handles with stamps were found among the Hellenistic artifacts, dating to between 250 and 125 BCE. One stamp may be dated to the late 3rd century BCE, establishing an even earlier Hellenic presence. The walls of a large structure were discovered, with most of the building eroded down the slope. A more notable discovery was a square
watchtower, overlooking the junction below the mound. Its base measured . Some Hellenistic pottery was discovered on the northeastern slope of the mound. Pottery found in another building on the mound's eastern slope dated that structure to the Hellenistic period also. Yokneam seems to have been sparsely populated during the Hellenistic period. The main settlement between the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods was apparently on the hill south of the mound, on which the first the modern-day town of
Yokneam Illit is built. This conclusion is based on frequent finds of artifacts and remains from those periods during construction activity in this area.
Roman and Byzantine periods Along with the rest of the region, Yokneam came under
Roman rule in 63 BCE. Potsherds are the only artifacts dated to the Roman period that have been found in the main excavation area at Tel Yokneam. These artifacts include a cup fragment, a bowl, a
krater, a cooking pot, an
oil lamp, and
amphorae, dating from between 50 BCE and 150 CE. An underground room discovered under the church was identified as a Roman
mausoleum. It was dated to the Late Roman period, based on a
sarcophagus found among the building materials of the church, and on other Roman-like building features. One interpretation is that the church-builders discovered the mausoleum, cleared it of its contents, and reused elements from it as building materials. Five Roman coins were found, ranging in date between 20 and 354 CE.
Eusebius of Caesarea included biblical Yokneam in his
Onomasticon in the 3rd century CE, writing that in his own time it was a village called Cammona, "situated in the great plain, six Roman miles north of
Legio, on the way to
Ptolemais". A Byzantine church, built between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, was found below the ruins of a later Crusader church. It was built, in turn, on top of the Roman mausoleum. The church may originally have been built as the burial place of a saint. It was probably destroyed somewhere around the 7th century, during the Persian or Islamic conquests. Beneath a later Ottoman fortress were two pits, sealed off by a door, which contained many potsherds from the early Byzantine period.
Early Islamic period In 634–636 CE, the
Islamic
Rashidun Caliphate won the region from the
Byzantine Empire. Although not mentioned in sources, Yokneam at that time was a well-planned, unfortified city, with a street system and symmetrical buildings constructed on terraces. The city was established during the second half of the 9th century CE, probably during the rule of
Ahmad ibn Tulun, who united Egypt, Syria, and the Levant in 878 CE. The Egyptian rulers consolidated their control over the country, which was subject to political instability. This period in the site's history is unique. The settlement's layout, the orientation of its buildings, the architecture and construction methods differ not only from the preceding and succeeding phases of occupation but from any other settlement period. This may reflect the fact that a city had not existed on the site since the end of the Persian period, some 1000 years earlier. The houses were built using local stone, rather than material imported from nearby
Mount Carmel as in previous periods; an observation common to this and later periods.
Crusader and Mamluk periods Historical record After the
First Crusade, Yokneam was included in the newly established
Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem. It appears in Latin sources for the first time in a decree issued by
Pope Paschal II. The decree stated that Yokneam, under the name Caimum, belonged to the
monastery of Mount Tabor. It was possibly still in Muslim hands at that time, as was the case for most of the places listed. It is likely that King
Baldwin I of Jerusalem took Yokneam during his campaign against
Acre in 1104, and it is unclear whether the monastery of Mount Tabor had previously owned the land. Yokneam is mentioned again, as "Caymont", in a charter issued by King
Baldwin IV of Jerusalem on 24 February 1182 granting a
fief consisting of a few shops in Acre and 480 acres of land in the territory of Caymont (
"territorio de Caimont") to
Joscelin III. By that time, Caymont was probably a
lordship. The territory did not exceed . No other settlements on its lands are known today. After
Saladin defeated the armies of the
Crusaders at the
Battle of Hattin in 1187, the Frankish city of Caymont fell into the hands of the Islamic
Ayyubid dynasty. The city was notable enough to be mentioned in the two detailed accounts recorded. One of these states that the site, along with others in the region, was plundered by the conquerors.
Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, Saladin's secretary, wrote that upon the
fall of La Fève, Caymont surrendered like other Frankish localities. During the
Third Crusade, Qaymun was mentioned again when Saladin sent his property to Qaymun and
Nazareth during the
Siege of Acre. As soon as the Crusaders began their march towards
Jaffa on 22 August 1191, Saladin began marching on a parallel inland course. He camped in Qaymun for one day, on 24 August 1191. That his army set up tents there suggests that the Frankish castle was already in ruins. The
Treaty of Jaffa, which ended the Third Crusade when it was signed on 2 September 1192, gave Qaymun and its lands to
Balian of Ibelin, a prominent Frankish leader. Nothing is known of Balian's doings in Caymont, but as he was a prominent leader it is plausible that he made a significant contribution to the site. After the initial Crusader victory at
Damietta, the Franks of Acre attempted to attack the Muslims, but were defeated near Caymont by the sultan of Damascus,
Al-Mu'azzam Isa.
Archaeological findings There is a 100-year break in the archaeological record between the Early Islamic phase and Yokneam's Crusader period in the early 12th century. The Crusader's city was fortified, and probably the largest settlement on the site since the Iron Age. Structures were found in all of the excavation areas. The fortification system featured a
rampart supported by a retaining wall, and a drainage system to protect it from the weather. A large building with a kitchen, and a big public building were identified beside the wall. Significant public structures in the south included the city gate, a fort, and a church. The fort occupies 15% of the entire available area of the mound. and Ottoman pottery, probably displaced by rainwater, was found in several areas of the tel. These finds are quite meager, however, and archaeologist Amnon Ben-Tor has challenged this claim. Miriam Avissar, another archaeologist who has studied the site, believes that the fortress is indeed an Ottoman fortress, built by Daher al-Umar in the 18th century and abandoned in the 19th century.
Claude Reignier Conder described the site in 1878 as a "huge Tell" with the remains of a "little Byzantine chapel" and a "small fort" built by Daher al-Umar. He recounts two legends about this place: a
Samaritan legend that
Joshua camped here during the fight against the Canaanites; and a Christian legend that
Lamech, the great-grandchild of
Cain, murdered his own great grandfather here with an arrow. Conder understands the name "Cain Mons" (i.e.: Caymont) as a corruption of "Keimûn". ==History of archaeological excavation==