, Albania. As Pasha, Ali slowly laid the foundations for the creation of an almost independent state, which included a large part of Albania and mainland Greece. During his rule, the town of Ioannina developed into a major educational, cultural, political and economic hub. In order to achieve his goals, he allied with all religious and ethnic groups in his territory. At the same time, he did not hesitate to fiercely crush any opponent, and he also developed relations with European powers. By the time of his accession to the Pashalik of Yanina, several almost-independent Albanian and Greek towns of the region reversed their approach of hostility against the Ottoman rule and pledged their loyalty to Ali. Ali's policy as ruler of Ioannina was mostly governed by expediency; he operated as a semi-independent despot and pragmatically allied himself with whoever offered the most advantage at the time. It was Ali Pasha and his Albanian soldiers and mercenaries who subdued the independent
Souli. , published in 1820 by
Thomas Smart Hughes. At this point, Ali Pasha's priority was to create a centralised governing system by neutralising the numerous disruptive factions vying for power in his Pashalik, including the
klephts,
armatoles, Christian notables, and Albanian
beys and
agas. For example, Ali replaced Greek
armatoles from the territories under his control with almost exclusively Albanian armatoles. The discarded Greek armatoles became
klephts and their subsequent anti-armatoloi activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule. Ali also targeted wealthy Muslim landowners under the guise of bringing justice for the peasant population whilst increasing his own wealth. In 1788, Ali's troops completed the destruction of
Moscopole, a once-prosperous cultural centre in south-eastern Albania that had been continuously raided by Albanian irregulars from 1769 onwards due to their pro-Russian stance and support of the
Orlov Revolt. The
Aromanian population of Moscopole was forced to flee from the region and find refuge in regions outside of Ali's control, both in and out of the
Ottoman Empire. Many Aromanians scattered throughout the Balkans, founding settlements such as
Kruševo, but many also migrated to foreign countries, forming an
Aromanian diaspora. The same campaign of persecution was launched towards
Sarakatsani communities. The 1792 attack ended in a Souliote victory, and in the negotiations, the Botsaris clan managed to become recognized by Ali Pasha as the lawful representative clan of Souli and George Botsaris as the one who would enforce the terms of peace among the Souliotes. Ali, however, would not forget this humiliation.
Consolidation Despite his setback in Souli, Ali Pasha retained an influential standing in
Constantinople. For example, Ali managed to use his influence to reverse the death penalty imposed on the Pasha of
Negroponte after he pleaded to Ali for help. Although he had obtained his power through force in a lawless environment, it was crucial for Ali Pasha to maintain peace and stability to ensure that his coffers remained full. Ali would offer protection to towns and villages in return for their loyalty, thereby increasing his control over his expanding territories by appointing his representatives and negotiating appropriate terms and tax arrangements. Correspondence from Ali's subjects during this period make heavy use of flattering and obsequious phrases whilst Ali's replies are terse and factual, reflecting the power dynamic between them; villagers often wrote to Ali with complaints about the Souliotes thieving their sheep or about raids from klephts, usually from neighbouring villages. The people of
Kokosi in
Thessaly wrote to Ali in 1794 on behalf of
Platini Scourpi,
Koffi and other villages, requesting the prolonged stay of one of Ali's
boluk-bashis (officers) with his men to continue protecting them from bandits. The villagers of
Kato Soudena also offered to pay Ali Pasha so that they may be placed under his protection. Ali did not only provide protection from bandits, however, as he offered protection from the Sultan's tax collectors as well, interfering with the collection and disposal of government tax revenue through the bribery of officials or the allocation of tax collecting duties to his family and supporters. In fact, the higher ranks of the
Greek Orthodox Church colluded with Ali to the extent that bishops were willing to act as his tax collectors. By pledging their loyalty to Ali, communities could put themselves under his jurisdiction. At times, Ali Pasha would pay to bring a community under his jurisdiction. Villages would even threaten to separate, such as in 1802 when the inhabitants of
Chebelovo complained that Ali favoured their neighbours over them. Communities that were unhappy with Ali's rule were able to appeal to the Ottoman
kadi courts or the central government itself, so it was crucial that Ali maintained good standing with his connections in Constantinople since his position as dervendji-pasha was never totally secure. When one of Ali's lobbyists in the
Phanariot elite informed Ali that there was a rival bid for control of the passes in 1797, Ali was encouraged to make a higher offer to the treasury and to ameliorate relations with the local communities he collected taxes from, as their complaints could serve as a justification for the authorities granting control of the passes to his rival. By 1798, Ali Pasha's influence extended to
Veroia. He was made governor of
Thessaly in 1799 to clear the region of bandits, soon followed by all of
Rumeli. Ali was able to extract taxes beyond the strictly defined borders of his realm, as his power extended beyond the areas that were formally recognised as his. By 1803, several villages in the district of
Florina were finalising the terms of their tax collection with Ali, and Ali's tax-collecting powers would eventually extend as far north as
Prilep by assuming fake identities as a tax-farmer. The principal role of geography in the communal groups of his time were comprehended by Ali. He insisted that Ioannina, located in the Greek
district of Epirus, was Albanian. He also considered the Albanian population who lived in the area not as immigrants but as indigenous people of the region. He tried to justify his plans on the territories under foreign protectorate on the Ionian coast also by insisting that they were part of "Albania" as well. Language was a defining element of Ali's identity, as well as of his government and the region he controlled in general. Ali's native language was Albanian. His degree of proficiency in written Greek is debatable, but it is known that he was able to speak the language. Albanians and Greeks exchanging languages was quite common in the 18th century. Ioannina was located in a largely Greek-speaking area, and during the Ottoman rule the Albanian language has not been officially recognized. Albanian has become a fully written language with its own script only from the mid-19th century, while written Greek was a well established language within the Ottoman Empire. The formal bureaucratic language of the Empire was entirely replaced with Greek in the pashalik, and in Ali's court diplomatic business was exclusively conducted in Greek as well as much of the formal correspondence. Ali also used the Greek script to write in Albanian and to transliterate Turkish in his personal correspondence. The usage of Greek, however, did not in any way make Ali Greek, just as his role as Ottoman appointee did not in any way make him Ottoman. He was first and foremost considered as an Albanian.
Ali Pasha and the European powers , published in 1855. The stability brought about by Ali Pasha's reign allowed the regional centre of
Ioannina to become more cosmopolitan, connecting Ali to an international network. As his fame grew, so to did the number of foreigners in his court. Ali wanted to establish a sea-power in the
Mediterranean which would be a counterpart of that of the
Dey of
Algiers, Ahmed ben Ali. However, in order to gain a seaport on the Albanian coast, Ali Pasha had to deal with
Venice, which controlled the ports and the
Ionian straits. The Venetians had obtained an agreement from the
Sublime Porte in 1788 that barred Turkish vessels from accessing these Venetian holdings, as well as banning Ottoman gun emplacements within a mile of the coast. These conditions obstructed trade in Epirus as well as Ali Pasha's ambitions. Significant geopolitical shifts occurred in the Europe prior to Ali Pasha challenging Venice. The
Treaty of Jassy in 1792, which allowed Greeks to sail under the Russian flag, significantly boosted Greek shipping and trade with the
Crimea. The
French Revolution's influence reached Ali's domain, with the French becoming a powerful force in the area. French consul Esprit-Marie Cousinéry, a supporter of Greek independence, and de Lassale, the consul of
Preveza, discussed the possibility of French support in Ali's ambitions. Lassale's mission included securing timber from Epirus for the French Navy, thereby offering arms and ammunition to Ali for subduing Suli and
Himara. By 1797, Venice fell to Napoleon, leading to the
Treaty of Campo Formio, in which the
Ionian Islands and neighbouring ports were transferred to France. These strategic locations, long coveted by Ali, were now under French control. Ali, using the alias 'Mustafa', allegedly held the governorship of
Arta from 1796. The French established garrisons and a naval presence in the region, and were welcomed as liberators in places like Preveza. Napoleon's growing influence and victories inspired many in Europe, including the subjugated populations who saw the French advances as a liberation march. This environment set the stage for Ali Pasha's manoeuvres to strengthen his position, and he formed an alliance with
Napoleon I of France, who had established
François Pouqueville as his general consul in Ioannina, with the complete consent of the
Ottoman Sultan Selim III. The French already had consuls at Arta and Preveza when Ali Pasha unsuccessfully tried to approach
Louis XVI as a precautionary guarantee to protect him from his opponents in the Ottoman capital. Likewise, the British government, which opened in 1769 for the first time a consulate in
Arta, established a permanent consular representation by 1803 and appointed
John Philip Morier as "General Council in the Morea and Albania", centred in Ali Pasha's capital, Ioannina. This probably represents the earliest official recognition of the name "Albania" by the British government.
Cooperation with the French Ali Pasha navigated the changing political landscape as the French sought to undermine Venetian influence in the region. Professing animosity towards the Venetian aristocracy, Ali secretly communicated with Napoleon, then in northern
Italy, despite the risk of treason as France and the Ottoman Empire edged towards war. The French, eager to counter the power of the Ottomans, assisted Ali in ending the independence of the Himariotes. Ali impressed the French, particularly General
Antoine Gentili, with his admiration for Napoleon, and he even arranged a marriage between his alleged illegitimate daughter and a French adjutant general. In a clandestine meeting, Ali sought military assistance and naval access around
Corfu. Influenced by Ali's charm and strategic considerations as well as Himara's ties to the
Neapolitan Army opposing Napoleon and the French, Gentili collaborated with Ali in a surprise attack on
Nivicë in 1798, a town which at this point was the most prosperous on the coastal littoral
Butrint and
Vlorë. Gentili ferried Ali's troops through the Ionian straits by night in contravention of the treaty between the Venetians and the Porte. Landing in the bay at
Lukovë to the north, Ali's troops outflanked the town, which is situated at the entrance to the narrow valley which leads into Himara from the landward side. Ali's men attacked Nivica and
Shën Vasili, the neighbouring village to the north, on Easter Sunday when the inhabitants were at prayer, taking the town and other villages and then reducing them to ruins. They ravaged as far north as Himara itself, and it was said that 6,000 unarmed civilians were slaughtered in the process (some by roasting alive and impalement) whilst the rest of the population were sent to Ali's farms near
Trikkala. Their land was then divided up and partitioned for cultivation by Ali's subjects in
Saranda. Ali left a small square fortress at Shën Vasili to guard the entrance to Himara and to watch over the remaining population of Nivica. This campaign led to the annexation of Himara, extending Ali's control along the coast to Vlorë. Concurrently, during the winter of 1797-1798, Ali dealt with regional conflicts at the request of the Ottomans, particularly against the rebel governor
Osman Pazvantoğlu who had begun carving out his own polity centred around
Vidin in modern
Bulgaria. The Ottomans had already dispatched a force of 50,000-100,000 men under
Küçük Hüseyin Pasha to crush the rebellion, and they sent for Ali's help. Ali, reluctant to appear subservient to the Sultan particularly in the face of the French, had his subjects in
Karpenisi write to the patriarch of Constantinople and inform him that they were in fear of banditry should Ali leave them unprotected. This failed, and Ali was forced to take to the field personally with a force of 20,000 Albanians, leaving
Mukhtar in charge in Ioannina. Despite the eventual failure of the Ottoman campaign once Ali left the Ottoman army and the subsequent pardoning of Pazvantoğlu, Ali Pasha and his Albanians distinguished themselves during the fighting, earning Ali the title "
Aslan" (
the Lion) from the
Porte. However, Ali Pasha's engagement in this campaign and the French's anger over his actions against their ally Pazvantoğlu strained his relations with France. Ali, in turn, was also disappointed with the failure of French promises of support; aside from pledges of financial and military support, the French had even offered Ali Pasha the crown of Albania once they had taken the
Morea, but it became increasingly clear that this was not going to occur. Indeed, British traveller
Henry Holland reported in 1815 that during a personal conversation with Ali it apparently emerged that Napoleon, at a certain point, had promised Ali the position of King of Albania, but Holland also remarked that Ali was not convinced by the offer, because he distrusted the French. As such, Ali's alliance with France continued to sour. Upon his return to Ioannina, Ali felt compelled to align with the Sultan's efforts to expel the French from Epirus, marking a significant shift in his regional allegiances.
Conflict with the French Conquest of Preveza In June 1798, as the French advanced their ambitions in Ottoman-controlled
Egypt, Ali Pasha was engaged in the siege of Vidin along the
Danube. Despite being distant, Ali received reports from his son Mukhtar on the situation in Epirus. These reports detailed subversive activities by the French, particularly their efforts to incite revolt among the Souliotes through the distribution of leaflets and tricolour cockades. Recognizing the potential threat to his rule, Ali obtained special permission from the Sultan to return to Epirus to address these issues whilst maintaining diplomatic communications with the French as he still contemplated a strategic alliance with them. He purportedly offered to join forces with the French in exchange for control over the island of
Santa Maura as well as former Venetian territories on the mainland, and the right to station a garrison on
Corfu. However, General
Louis François Jean Chabot, the commander-in-chief of the French forces on Corfu, rejected this proposal. By September 1798, with the
declaration of war between the French and the Ottomans, Ali's stance became clear. Ali Pasha quickly assembled his forces, although historical accounts differ as to whether Ali secured a commission to confront the French through diplomatic channels in Constantinople or whether the Porte's slow response led Ali to unilaterally mobilize over 20,000 troops against a potential French invasion. Ali did not wait for the French to act and strategically positioned his troops near Butrint, setting a trap for the French. He lured the French adjutant general Rose, who was temporarily in charge at Corfu, to a meeting near
Igoumenitsa. Rose, wrongfully believing in Ali's professed allegiance to the French, was taken prisoner, tortured, and sent to Ioannina in chains; the same tactic would be used on the French sub-lieutenant in Butrint. In October 1798, after securing Butrint and Igoumenitsa, Ali's troops
attacked the coastal town of
Preveza, which was defended by a small garrison of French soldiers, Souliote fighters, Ionian islanders and local pro-French Greeks. Ali's campaign was made easier by his former enemy, the Albanian chieftain George Botsaris of Souli, who allowed Ali's men passage through Souliote territory in exchange for a payment. The battle itself occurred on the 12th of October as Ali observed from a vantage point above Nicopolis in the same location where
Roman Emperor Augustus had watched the
Battle of Actium. Ali observed as his son
Mukhtar lead a cavalry charge, and the hastily constructed French defences were soon overwhelmed by Ali's superior forces, which aside from Albanians also included Greeks and Albanian
Souliotes. The fall of Preveza was further aided by Metropolitan Ignatios of Arta, an agent of Ali, who effectively weakened the resolve of the Greek defenders through counter-propaganda. When the town was finally conquered, a major slaughter occurred against the local people as retaliation for their resistance. Ali ordered the execution of 300 Greeks in front of him, and when a number of those who fled returned on the false promise of amnesty, 170 of them were executed. Survivors were marched to Ioannina bearing the severed and salted heads of their companions, and were subjected to jeers and abuse from the pro-Ottoman populace as they marched at the head of a grand procession organised by Ali Pasha for his victorious troops. The women and young girls were sold into slavery. Notable among the captured French was Louis-Auguste Camus de Richemont, the commander of the French engineers, who was spared due to Mukhtar's admiration for his bravery. Along with other survivors, including the captured French grenadiers and officers, they were sent to Constantinople. There, they were imprisoned in the
Yedikule Fortress. The massacre at Preveza had far-reaching implications, influencing the rise of Greek nationalism and being remembered in songs and literature by figures such as
Lord Byron. Preveza was left in ruins as the properties of the Greeks were seized by Ali and redistributed among his Albanians. The surviving population was displaced to the marshlands around the
Ambracian Gulf, and the town's population was estimated to have drastically fallen from 16,000 to 3,000 inhabitants. Nonetheless, Ali transformed Preveza into a naval base and one of his favoured residences, earning it the moniker "
Portsmouth of Albania."
Corfu and the Ionian Islands After the conquest of Preveza, Ali Pasha shifted his focus to
Vonica, located across the Ambracian Gulf. This time, the town capitulated without resistance, surrendering after the intervention of Archbishop Ignatios, who acted on Ali's behalf. Ali then focused on
Parga, a refuge for those fleeing Turkish rule and a longstanding irritant to Epirus' rulers. Ali extended an offer of autonomy to Parga, which the inhabitants resolutely declined, citing their commitment to liberty and opposition to tyranny. This resistance would become another thorn in Ali's side. Meanwhile, Ali's ambitions extended to
Aetolia-Acarnania, southeast of Vonica. His attempts to exert influence there were initially thwarted by the Ottoman government, which granted the region as a royal domain to
Mihrişah Valide Sultan, Sultan
Selim III's mother. This move forced Ali to retreat from direct confrontation with the
Porte, despite his efforts to maintain favourable relations with Mihrişah and her associates. Ali's territorial aspirations also included
Santa Maura, an Ionian island close to the mainland. However, international developments, particularly Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, complicated his plans. After joining the
Second Coalition against France, the Ottoman Empire side-lined Ali as a Russian-Turkish fleet moved to capture the Ionian Islands from the French. Ali's attempts to negotiate control of the island were interrupted by the arrival of this fleet. Parga, seizing the opportunity, placed itself under Russian protection, further hindering Ali's territorial ambitions. The Russo-Turkish forces eventually
captured Corfu, ending French rule in the Ionian Islands. Ali and his sons contributed to the siege, albeit in a diversionary role, which nonetheless enhanced his reputation, reportedly earning commendation from Admiral
Horatio Nelson. In 1800, the Ionian Islands were formed into the
Septinsular Republic, a tributary state of the Ottoman Empire, with specific conditions to respect the islands' autonomy and religious freedom. The Russians would eventually place the republic under their de facto military occupation. Despite the removal of foreign powers from the mainland, Ali faced limitations in exerting direct control over important ports. His attempts to dominate Parga were met with resistance, as the Pargians, aided by the Suliotes, preferred direct dealings with the Porte. This stalemate continued even after the
Treaty of Amiens in 1802, which Britain and France briefly endorsed. The resumption of hostilities between Britain and France in 1803 saw Ali reaching out to the British Embassy for guidance, marking the beginning of official British contact with him. Ali's aggressive actions against towns under French influence were rationalized by his hagiographer
Haxhi Shehreti as efforts to suppress Greek insurrection on behalf of the Sultan. However, this justification seemed redundant, given that these towns were not under Turkish rule and were embroiled in a war with France, and the situation was further complicated by increasing Greek nationalist sentiment fuelled by French interference.
The Defeat of the Souliotes , published in 1820 by
Thomas Smart Hughes. The French aided the Souliotes by funnelling money and supplies through Parga, hoping to weaken the Ottoman Empire. In response, the Porte obliged Ali Pasha to eliminate the Souliote threat, and Ali proceeded by commencing a war of attrition with the help of the Çapari family of Margariti. Ali had learned from previous failures that direct assaults were futile, and so he blockaded Suli with a ring of 12 fortresses, with the one at Gliki controlling the only road into Suli. The slow construction of these fortresses was further complicated by Souliote sharpshooters, and an estimated third of Ali's troops deserted. Simultaneously, in 1802, Ali finally managed to take
Delvinë after seven years of conflict which were said to have destroyed much of the surrounding settlements. This granted Ali control of Epirus from
Arta to
Tepelenë and
Vlorë, with Suli being the only region that still held out against him. The Souliotes, however, had their own share of struggles; in 1800, the chieftain of the Souliotes, George Botsaris, received a large sum and the position of the
armatolos of
Tzoumerka, and so the Botsaris clan left Souli and settled in
Vourgareli of Arta. This was the first time that a Souliot clan became part of the Ottoman political system. The departure of the Botsaris clan weakened Souli as they were a significant part of its force, and George also took valuable munitions from the Souliotes when he departed. Fotos Tzavelas, son of Lambros, became the new leader of the Souliotes, who were running out of supplies whilst Ali Pasha's army of 20,000 continuously received imperial supplies. Ali finally attacked in autumn of 1803, and in response, most of the Souliotes gathered at the stronghold of Kungi above the village of Suli with their supplies running increasingly low. Out of desperation, the Souliotes decided that those who wished to surrender would be allowed to do so, and Ali saw this as an opportunity to take the Souliote leaders hostage and expel the Souliotes from their stronghold. Ali's son
Veli arranged for the surrender of the Souliotes with their leader Fotos, but a faction of the Souliotes preferred death instead. This faction, led by a monk known as Last Judgement Samuel and with the knowledge of Fotos, waited for Ali's troops to come and take the arsenal; once the soldiers had entered, the monk and his five collaborators set fire to the magazines and blew up the arsenal. The Souliotes, numbering to 4,000 survivors, agreed to abandon Suli and left to find refuge in Parga and the
Ionian Islands as their four villages were destroyed. Some, however, trusted in Veli and remained. The conquest of Souli subsequently gave rise to numerous legends and stories, such as the
Dance of Zalongo, which is portrayed in a number of ways in different versions. The exiled Souliote men went into military service wherever they could, such as for the Russians, the French, the Ottomans or even Ali himself. Souliote men who were captured during the conquest were tortured to death and then impaled or burnt, whilst captured Souliote women and children were enslaved in harems. Ali's victory over the Souliotes affected the relationships of the local communities as Muslims and Christians in the region were generally on good terms. For example, Fotos Tzavelas was the blood brother of Islam Pronjo, the most powerful Albanian bey in
Paramythia, and the Pronjo family was secretly passing information onto the Souliotes despite serving under Ali's banner. Ali was aware of this, and after fabricating an alliance between the Pronjo family and his rival
Ibrahim Pasha of Berat, he expelled the family from Paramythia and destroyed the settlement. Likewise, Ali confiscated the properties of the Çapari family in 1807, who then sought refuge in the Ionian Islands before joining the Albanian ruler
Muhammad Ali Pasha who had taken control of
Egypt. The Çapari family returned to their homes only after Ali's death, resuming their positions as tax collectors and
Chiflik holders. Additionally, Ali's wife of at least thirty years, Emine, had died around this time. Ali's third son, Selim, was born to one of Ali's slaves at the end of 1802, indicating that his domestic matters were complicated.
Ali as Beylerbey It has been suggested that Ali Pasha received the title of
Beylerbey of
Rumelia as a reward for his conquest of Suli. However, whilst Ali was dealing with the Souliotes, the
klephts continued their rampant banditry whilst
Osman Pazvantoğlu resumed his raids along the
Danube. By 1801, the constant threat of Muslim
hajduks and Christian klephts forced
Selim III to extend the dictatorial powers of the previous beylerbey - Hadji Mehmed Pasha - for another two years, with the Sultan eventually appointing Ali Pasha to take Hadji's place on 28 January 1803. Ali ordered the neighbouring pashas to gather their forces and amassed a vast army of 80,000 troops to be used as a show of force in areas rampant with banditry. He first toured the new territories in Macedonia that were now under his control and ordered that they be provided with food and money, saving the locals from making such expenses. He then proceeded to pacify and punish those who had caused unrest throughout Rumelia before camping outside the walls of
Plovdiv in the spring of 1804, finally deciding to return home with the loot he had obtained from the bandits. When he returned to Ioannina, he met with
John Philip Morier and discussed the possibility of Epirus becoming an independent state with the help of the British. Nonetheless, the klephts near Ali's realm continued their activities, and Ali used the current state of affairs to leverage more power from the Sultan. In 1806, a year after the death of
Mihrişah, Ali finally managed to gain control of
Karli-Eli. This meant that Ali's realm encircled the southern
Pindus mountains, where klephts such as
Antonis Katsantonis operated. Although Russian propaganda had begun influencing the klephts and
armatoloi, the ideals of national identity were not fully existent at this time. Prominent band captains like
Nikotsaras and
Demitrios Palaeopolos served Ali Pasha as armatoloi on numerous occasions, but Nikotsaras became a bandit after shooting a Turkish soldier and caused so much trouble in Thessaly that the authorities put a bounty on him. After taking a hiatus from banditry, Nikotsaras was forgiven by Ali, who reinstated him as one of his armatoloi, but Nikotsaras would join the
Serbian Revolution soon after.
Siege of Santa Maura With the outbreak of the
Russo-Turkish War in 1806, Ali decided to attack the
Ionian Islands as a show of loyalty to the Sultan whilst using the war as a pretext to subjugate the coastal Epirote towns directly under the control of the
Sublime Porte. Ali sent his son
Veli Pasha to drive out the governor in
Preveza and to subjugate
Butrint,
Igoumenitsa and
Vonitsa, and he subsequently imposed his own system of governance and tax collection and confiscated properties in the cities.
Parga, however, opposed Ali's advances yet again, this time with the support of a Russian garrison from Corfu. Ali demanded that the Russians give up the Souliotes who had taken refuge on the Ionian Islands along with the klephts from the
Morea who had fled Veli's attacks, such as
Theodoros Kolokotronis, and when these demands were refused. Ali prepared to attack
Santa Maura, the location of exile for many of the Greek captains and their men, and he was aided by the French due to his good relations with
Napoleon Bonaparte. The defense of Santa Maura was organised by
Ioannis Kapodistrias, who commanded a force of Greek volunteers and Russian troops, including a regiment of 3,000 irregular light riflemen that consisted of Himariotes, Souliotes, Albanians and Greeks. A stand-off between the two sides ensued as they engaged in skirmishes, and the siege was interrupted when Ali had to return to Ioannina with 1,600 men to meet with emissaries sent by the Sultan. Ali's efforts were thwarted by Napoleon's victory against the Russians at the
Battle of Friedland. This victory resulted in the signing of the
Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, in which the Russians placed the Ionian Islands, Butrint, Preveza, Vonitsa and Parga back under French protection. Ioannis Kapodistrias notified Ali of the new situation, to which Ali replied that the truce has nothing to do with him but that he would honour it as long as no armatoli were left on the mainland. As a result, Ali would keep Butrint, Vonitsa and Preveza, but Parga would be transferred over to French forces by the Russian garrison.
Ali and the Klephts The klephts and the armatoli were pushed towards a common cause by the actions of Ali Pasha and the Ottoman authorities, and under French influence, this began to develop into a more idealistic plan for the future. In 1807, the captains of the bands of Santa Maura met together with other klephts who operated in Macedonia and the Pindus Mountains at the
Evangelistria Monastery at
Skiathos and swore an 'Oath of Freedom'. They began to raid Ali's holdings in Thessaly, but Nikotsaras - one of the main klephts in this group - was killed during one of these raids. Demitrios Palaeopolos and
Thymios Vlachavas fought against Ali's troops in the mountain passes, and the idea of a klepht revolt overthrowing Ali was considered a favourable turn of events by the senior Ottoman officials who were concerned with Ali's increasing power. In response, Ali's son
Mukhtar was sent with 4,000 soldiers to destroy the klephts in 1808. The klepht movement began to degenerate into brigandage, and they targeted both Greeks and Muslims indiscriminately as support for their cause disintegrated. With the aid of Ali's informers and particularly the betrayal of a klepht called Deligiannis, the klepht band was captured in the Pindus Mountains on the road to
Trikkala. Demitrios Palaeopolos and Thymios Vlachavas were imprisoned for two years before escaping to
Constantinople, with Palaeopolos seeking asylum from the French and leaving for
Moldavia. Vlachavas obtained a
firman from the
Sublime Porte to guarantee his protection and returned to Ioannina, where he met with Ali. As Vlachavas was leaving the room, Ali had him arrested, imprisoned and eventually Ioannina once he had obtained permission from the Porte. Vlachavas' remains, which were cut to pieces, were hung up on display in Ioannina, and Ali's soldiers destroyed the
Monastery of St. Dimitrios at
Meteora where Vlachavas had sought refuge. In 1809, one of Ali's captains - Ago Myhyrdari - had finally captured the klepht
Antonis Katsantonis, who had been weakened by
smallpox. Katsatonis was tortured and executed in public by having his bones broken with a sledgehammer. ==Ali's growing independence==