Works Poggio, like Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (who became
Pius II), was a traveller, and wherever he went he brought powers of observation trained in studies to bear upon the manners of the countries he visited. In literature he embraced the whole sphere of contemporary studies, and distinguished himself as an orator, a writer of
rhetorical treatises, a
panegyrist of the dead, a passionate impugner of the living, a sarcastic polemist, a translator from the Greek, an epistolographer and grave historian and a facetious compiler of
fabliaux in Latin. His cultural/social/moral essays covered a wide range of subjects concerning the interests and values of his time: •
De avaritia (
On Greed, 1428−29) - Poggio's first major work. The old school of biographers (Shepherd, Walser) and historians saw in it a traditional condemnation of avarice. Modern historians tend, on the contraryespecially if studying the economic growth of the Italian
Trecento and
Quattrocentoto read it as a precocious statement of early capitalism, at least in its Florentine form — breaking through the hold of medieval values that disguised the realities of interest and loans in commerce to proclaim the social utility of wealth. It is the voice of a new age linking wealth, personal worth, conspicuous expenditure, ownership of valuable goods and objects, and social status, a voice not recognized until the late 20th century.; •
An seni sit uxor ducenda (
On Marriage in Old Age, 1436); •
De infelicitate principum (
On the Unhappiness of Princes, 1440); •
De nobilitate (
On Nobility, 1440): Poggio, a self-made man, defends true nobility as based on virtue rather than birth, an expression of the
meritocracy favored by the rich
bourgeoisie; •
De varietate fortunae (
On the Vicissitudes of Fortune, 1447); •
Contra hypocritas (
Against Hypocrisy, 1448); •
Historia disceptativa convivialis (Historical discussions between guests after a meal) in three parts (1450): : 1) on expressions of thanks : 2) on the dignity of medical versus legal profession (a reprise of Salutati's 1398 treatment of the same subject,
De Nobilitate Legum et Medicinae): Niccolo Niccoli, appealing to the lessons of experience, is arguing that laws are imposed by the will of the stronger to hold the state together − not God-given to rulers, nor a fact of nature − leading biographer Ernst Walser to conclude that "Poggio, in his writing, presents Machiavellism before
Machiavelli." : 3) on literate Latin versus vernacular Latin in classical Rome; Poggio concludes that they were both the same language, not two distinct idioms. •
De miseria humanae conditionis (
On the Misery of Human Life, 1455), reflections in his retirement in Florence inspired by the sack of Constantinople. These compositions, all written in Latin − and reviving the classical form of dialogues, between himself and learned friends − belonged to a genre of
socratic reflections which, since Petrarch set the fashion, was highly praised by Italian men of letters and made Poggio famous throughout Italy. They exemplify his conception of
studia humanitatis as an epitome of human knowledge and wisdom reserved only to the most learned, and the key to what the ancient philosophers called "virtue" and "the good". And thus, they are invaluable windows into the knowledge and
Weltanschauung of his age − geography, history, politics, morals, social aspects — and the emergence of the new values of the "Humanist Movement". They are loaded with rich nuggets of fact embedded in subtle disquisitions, with insightful comments, brilliant illustrations, and a wide display of historical and contemporary references. Poggio was always inclined to make objective observations and clinical comparisons between various cultural mores, for instance ancient Roman practices versus modern ones, or Italians versus the English. He compared the eloquence of Jerome of Prague and his fortitude before death with ancient philosophers. The abstruse points of theology presented no interest to him, only the social impact of the Church did, mostly as an object of critique and ridicule.
On the Vicissitudes of Fortune became famous for including in book IV an account of the 25-year voyage of the Venetian adventurer
Niccolo de' Conti in Persia and India, which was translated into Portuguese on express command of the Portuguese King Emmanuel I. An Italian translation was made from the Portuguese. Poggio's
Historia Florentina (
History of Florence), is a history of the city from 1350 to 1455, written in avowed imitation of Livy and
Sallust, and possibly
Thucydides (available in Greek, but translated into Latin by Valla only in 1450–52) in its use of speeches to explain decisions. Poggio continued Leonardo Bruni's
History of the Florentine People, which closed in 1402, and is considered the first modern history book. Poggio limited his focus to external events, mostly wars, in which Florence was the
defensor Tusciae and of Italian liberty. But Poggio also pragmatically defended Florence's expansionist policies to insure the "safety of the Florentine Republic", which became the key motive of its history, as a premonition of Machiavelli's doctrine. Conceding to superior forces becomes an expression of reason and advising it a mark of wisdom. His intimate and vast experience of Italian affairs inculcated in him a strong sense of realism, echoing his views on laws expressed in his second
Historia disceptativa convivialis (1450). Poggio's beautiful rhetorical prose turns his
Historia Florentina into a vivid narrative, with a sweeping sense of movement, and a sharp portrayal of the main characters, but it also exemplifies the limitations of the newly emerging historical style, which, in the work of Leonardo Bruni, Carlo Marsuppini and
Pietro Bembo, retained "romantic" aspects and did not reach yet the weight of objectivity later expected by the school of modern historians (especially since 1950). His
Liber Facetiarum (1438−1452), or
Facetiae, a collection of humorous and indecent tales expressed in the purest Latin Poggio could command, are the works most enjoyed today: they are available in several English translations. This book is chiefly remarkable for its unsparing satires on the monastic orders and the secular clergy. "The worst men in the world live in Rome, and worse than the others are the priests, and the worst of the priests they make cardinals, and the worst of all the cardinals is made pope." Poggio's book became an internationally popular work in all countries of Western Europe, and has gone through multiple editions until modern times. In addition Poggio's works included his
Epistolae, a collection of his letters, a most insightful witness of his remarkable age, in which he gave full play to his talent as chronicler of events, to his wide range or interests, and to his most acerbic critical sense.
Revival of Latin and Greek In the way of many humanists of his time, Poggio rejected the vernacular Italian and always wrote only in Latin, and translated works from Greek into that language. His letters are full of learning, charm, detail, and amusing personal attack on his enemies and colleagues. It is also noticeable as illustrating the Latinizing tendency of an age which gave classic form to the lightest essays of the fancy. Poggio was a fluent and copious writer in Latin, admired for his classical style inspired from Cicero, if not fully reaching the elegance of his model, but outstanding by the standards of his age. Italy was barely emerging from what Petrarch had termed the
Dark Ages, while Poggio was facing the unique challenge of making "those frequent allusions to the customs and transactions of his own times, which render his writings so interesting... at a period when the Latin language was just rescued from the grossest barbarism... the writings of Poggio are truly astonishing. Rising to a degree of elegance, to be sought for in vain in the rugged Latinity of Petrarca and Coluccio Salutati..." His knowledge of the ancient authors was wide, his taste encompassed all genres, and his erudition was as good as the limited libraries of the time allowed, when books were extremely rare and extraordinarily expensive. Good instruction in Greek was uncommon and hard to obtain in Italy. Proficient teachers, such as Ambrogio Traversari, were few and highly valued.
Manuel Chrysoloras used to be occasionally credited as having instructed Poggio in Greek during his youth, but Shepherd cites a letter by Poggio to Niccolò Niccoli stating that he began the study of Greek in 1424, in Rome at age 44 (Shepherd, p. 6). Poggio's preface to his dialogue
On Avarice notes that his task was made the harder "because I can neither translate from the Greek language for our benefit, nor are my abilities such that I should wish to discuss in public anything drawn from these writings" Consequently, his knowledge of Greek never attained the quality of his Latin. His best-efforts translation of
Xenophon's
Cyropaedia into Latin cannot be praised for accuracy by modern standards. But he was the first critic to label it a "political romance", instead of history. His son used this Latin translation to produce an Italian version. Poggio also translated
Lucian's
Ass, considered an influence of
Apuleius's Latin masterpiece,
The Golden Ass.
Invectives Among contemporaries he passed for one of the most formidable
polemical or gladiatorial rhetoricians; and a considerable section of his extant works is occupied by a brilliant display of his sarcastic wit and his unlimited inventiveness in "invectives". One of these, published on the strength of Poggio's old friendship with the new pontiff, Nicolas V, the dialogue
Against Hypocrites, was actuated by a vindictive hatred at the follies and vices of ecclesiastics. This was but another instance of his lifelong obstinate denouncing of the corruption of clerical life in the 15th century. Nicholas V then asked Poggio to deliver a philippic against
Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy, who claimed to be the
Antipope Felix V — a ferocious attack with no compunction in pouring on the Duke fantastic accusations, unrestrained abuse and the most extreme anathemas.
Invectivae ("
Invectives") were a specialized literary
genre used during the Italian Renaissance, tirades of exaggerated
obloquy aimed at insulting and degrading an opponent beyond the bounds of any common
decency. Poggio's most famous "Invectives" were those he composed in his literary quarrels, such as with
George of Trebizond,
Bartolomeo Facio, and
Antonio Beccadelli, the author of a scandalous
Hermaphroditus, inspired by the unfettered eroticism of
Catullus and
Martial. All the resources of Poggio's rich vocabulary of the most scurrilous Latin were employed to stain the character of his target; every imaginable crime was imputed to him, and the most outrageous accusations proffered, without any regard to plausibility. Poggio's quarrels against
Francesco Filelfo and also
Niccolo Perotti pitted him against well-known scholars.
Humanist script Poggio was famous for his beautiful and legible book hand.
Berthold Louis Ullman identified him as the inventor of the type writing known as
Humanist minuscule, which gave rise at the end of the fourteenth century to
Roman type, which remains popular today. Recent research by Teresa De Robertis and others has shown that other scribes had used Humanist minuscule before Poggio. So Poggio did not invent the new script, but he was one of the most prolific and distinguished scribes to use it so soon after its development, and his influence no doubt helped it spread through Italy. == Works ==