Woman's Christian Temperance Union

At its founding in 1874, the stated purpose of the WCTU was to create a "sober and pure world" by abstinence, purity, and evangelical Christianity. Annie Wittenmyer was its first president. Wittenmyer was conservative in her goals for the movement focusing only on the question of alcohol consumption and avoiding involvement in politics. The constitution of the WCTU called for "the entire prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage." Frances Willard, the second WCTU president, objected to this limited focus of social issues WCTU was addressing. Willard believed that it was necessary for the WCTU to be political in women's issues for the success, expansion, and implementation of the WCTU. From 1879, Willard was the president of the WCTU until her death in 1898. During her presidency, the WCTU grew significantly and established the relationship between temperance and suffrage. Despite advocating for women, WCTU did not challenge gender roles, rather they integrated elements of "protofeminism" into the organization. Its members were inspired by the Greek writer Xenophon, who defined temperance as "moderation in all things healthful; total abstinence from all things harmful." In other words, should something be good, it should not be indulged in to excess; should something be bad for you, it should be avoided altogether—thus their attempts to rid society of what they saw (and still see) as the dangers of alcohol. The WCTU perceived alcohol as a cause and consequence of larger social problems rather than as a personal weakness or failing. The WCTU also advocated against tobacco. The American WCTU formed a "Department for the Overthrow of the Tobacco Habit" as early as 1885 and frequently published anti-tobacco articles in the 1880s. Agitation against tobacco continued through to the 1950s. from the Hawaiian Gazette newspaper humorously illustrates the Anti-Saloon League and the Women's Christian Temperance Union's campaign against the producers and sellers of beers in Hawaii. ==Policy interests==

As a consequence of its stated purposes, the WCTU was also very interested in a number of social reform issues, including labor, prostitution, public health, sanitation, and international peace. As the movement grew in numbers and strength, members of the WCTU also focused on suffrage. The WCTU was instrumental in organizing woman's suffrage leaders and in helping more women become involved in American politics. Local chapters, known as "unions", were largely autonomous, though linked to state and national headquarters. Willard pushed for the "Home Protection" ballot, arguing that women, being the morally superior sex, needed the vote in order to act as "citizen-mothers" and protect their homes and cure society's ills. At a time when suffragists were viewed as radicals and alienated most American women, the WCTU offered a more traditionally feminine and "appropriate" organization for women to join. Home Protection interests also extended to Labor rights, and an openness to Socialism. WCTU had a close association with the Knights of Labor, sharing goals for class harmony, sober and disciplined workers, and a day of rest. Concern for workers' conditions and the effect on family life led many members to also critique the exploitation of capital, as well as demand a living wage. Although the WCTU had chapters throughout North America with hundreds of thousands of members, the "Christian" in its title was largely limited to those with an evangelical Protestant conviction and the importance of their role has been noted. The goal of evangelizing the world, according to this model, meant that very few Catholics, Jews, Muslims, Buddhists or Hindus were attracted to it, "even though the last three had a pronounced cultural and religious preference for abstinence". As the WCTU grew internationally, it developed various approaches that helped with the inclusion of women of religions other than Christianity. But, it was always primarily, and still is, a Christian women's organization. The WCTU's work extended across a range of efforts to bring about personal and social moral reform. In the 1880s, it worked on creating legislation to protect working girls from the exploitation of men, including raising Age of Consent laws. It also focused on keeping Sundays as Sabbath days and restrict frivolous activities. In 1901 the WCTU said that golf should not be allowed on Sundays. The WCTU was also involved with efforts to alleviate poverty by discouraging the purchase of alcohol products. Through journal articles, the WCTU tried to prove that abstinence would help people move up in life. A fictional story in one of their journal articles illustrates this fact: Ned has applied for a job, but he is not chosen. He finds that the potential employer has judged him to be like his Uncle Jack. Jack is a kindly man but he spends his money on drink and cigarettes. Ned has also been seen drinking and smoking. The employer thinks that Ned Fisher lacks the necessary traits of industriousness which he associates with abstinence and self-control. ==Spread and influence==

The Woman's Christian Temperance Union grew rapidly. The WCTU adopted Willard's "Do Everything" philosophy, which meant that the "W.C.T.U. campaigned for local, state, and national prohibition, woman suffrage, protective purity legislation, scientific temperance instruction in the schools, better working conditions for labor, anti-polygamy laws, Americanization, and a variety of other reforms" despite having the image of a gospel temperance organization. The presidential addresses of the WCTU provide excellent insight as to how the organization seamlessly blended issues of grass-roots organizing, temperance, education, immigration and cultural assimilation. One prominent state chapter was the Minnesota Women's Christian Temperance Union. The Minnesota chapter's origin is rooted in the nation's anti-saloon crusades of 1873 and 1874 where women all throughout the United States "joined together outside saloons to pray and harass the customers." For Scovell and the women of the Minnesota WCTU, speaking English and participating in established American institutions were essential to truly become "American" just as abstaining from alcohol was necessary to be virtuous. By linking language to culture and institutions, Scovell and the WCTU recognized that a multicultural approach would be necessary to communicate values to new immigrants, but did not conclude that multiculturalism was a value in itself. The WCTU viewed the foreign European cultures as a corrupter and despoiler of virtue, hence the excessive drinking. That is ultimately why it was paramount the immigrants learned English and assimilated. WCTU and race The WCTU, while a predominantly white organisation in its early years, did boast a significant black and indigenous membership. In 1901, Eliza Pierce, a Native American woman, started her own New York chapter of the union, which was featured in The Sunday Herald in 1902. The participation of Black Americans in the fight for prohibition predates the WCTU's founding in 1874. Beginning in the 1830s, many northern formerly enslaved Black men aligned themselves with the Temperance movement in hopes of pushing towards moral progress. The Black temperance movement fell to the sidelines during Reconstruction as Black men and women focused on securing basic rights for the formerly enslaved. The proposal of the Fifteenth Amendment, which would promote Black men but not Black women, caused a schism within the Black activism community, many women feeling as though they had to choose between a fight for racial equality and universal voting rights, and largely prioritizing racial equality. After the Fifteenth Amendment passed in 1870, Black female activists returned their efforts to the fight for suffrage. Many of the post-Reconstruction Black suffragists believed there was a strong connection between reform work and gaining the right to vote. As soon as the WCTU was founded, Black women began participating in unions and discussions. Many point to Lucy Thurman as the first Black woman to join a WCTU branch, as well as to organize her own union branch. Recognizing the growing presence of Black women in the organization, WCTU leadership launched the Department of Work Among Colored People in 1880. The department was created with the intention of increasing support among Black individuals as well as teaching them to be students of temperance. Harper appears to have first started attending meetings in the 1870s with Philadelphia's branch of the WCTU. She quickly worked up the rankings, and in 1883 was named as the first Black superintendent of the Northern branch for the Department of Work Among Colored People. Despite this, Black women across the country continued to share Harper's feelings that their needs were being compromised in order to gain southern support. Other Black feminists such as Ida B. Wells and Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin called on their White peers for their racism and criticized the path of the WCTU. Ida B. Wells criticized Willard for her statements regarding black drunkenness, sparking an infamous conflict between the two women. In the 20th century and at present, the WCTU is composed of women from various ethnic and racial backgrounds, having a presence in countries across the globe. ==Prohibition==

system merged with that of the WCTU, which designed its own series of medals (pictured). Adelia E. Carman served as the medal department Supervisor for 30 years. In 1893, the WCTU switched focus toward prohibition, which was ultimately successful when the 18th amendment to the US Constitution was passed. After prohibition was instituted, WCTU membership declined. Over the years, different prohibition and suffrage activists had suspected that brewer associations gave money to anti-suffrage activities. In 1919, there was a Senate investigation that confirmed their suspicions. Some members of the United States Brewers Association were openly against the woman's suffrage movement. One member stated, "We have defeated woman's suffrage at three different times." Although the WCTU was an explicitly religious organization and worked with religious groups in social reform, it protested wine use in religious ceremonies. During an Episcopal convention, it asked the church to stop using wine in its ceremonies and to use unfermented grape juice instead. A WCTU direct resolution explained its reasoning: wine contained "the narcotic poison, alcohol, which cannot truly represent the blood of Christ." The WCTU also favored banning tobacco. In 1919, the WCTU expressed to Congress its desire for the total abolition of tobacco within five years. Under Willard, the WCTU supported the White Life for Two program. Under this program, men would reach women's higher moral standing (and thus become woman's equal) by engaging in lust-free, alcohol-free, tobacco-free marriages. At the time, the organization also fought to ban alcohol use on military bases, in Native American reservations, and within Washington's institutions. Ultimately, Willard succeeded in increasing the political clout of the organization because, unlike Annie Wittenmyer, she strongly believed that the success of the organization would only be achieved through the increased politicization of its platform. ==Reach==

In the United States, the WCTU was divided along ideological lines. The first president of the organization, Annie Wittenmyer, believed in the singleness of purpose of the organization—that is, that it should not put efforts into woman suffrage, prohibition, etc. This wing of the WCTU was more concerned with how morality played a role during the temperance movement. With that in mind, it sought to save those whom they believed to be of lower moral character. For them, the alcohol problem was one of moral nature and was not caused by the institutions that facilitated access to alcohol. The second president of the WCTU, Frances Willard, demonstrated a sharp distinction from Wittenmyer. Willard had a much broader interpretation of the social problems at hand. She believed in "a living wage; in an eight-hour day; in courts of conciliation and arbitration; in justice as opposed to greed in gain; in Peace on Earth and Good-Will to Men." This division illustrated two of the ideologies present in the organization at the time, conservatism and progressivism. To some extent, the Eastern Wing of the WCTU supported Wittenmyer and the Western Wing had a tendency to support the more progressive Willard view. Membership within the WCTU grew greatly every decade until the 1940s. By the 1920s, it was in more than forty countries and had more than 766,000 members paying dues at its peak in 1927. Classification of WCTU Committee Reports by Period and Interests • Source:Sample of every fifth Annual Report of the WCTU Percentages total more than 100 percent due to several interests in some committee reports. ==Committees==

In the organization's second decade (1884–1894), many departments were launched which focused on special needs. These included: • Anti-Narcotics (1884) • Christian Citizenship (1896) • Evangelistic (1883) • Fairs and Open Air Meetings (1880) • Flower Mission (1883) • Franchise (1881) • Health and Heredity (1881) • Institutes (1889) • Kindergarten (1884) • Legislation (1874) • Loyal Temperance Legion (1874) (juvenile work) • Literature (1877) • Medal Contests (1896) • Medical Temperance (1883) • Mercy (1890) • Purity (1875) • Parliamentary Usage (1887) • Peace and International Arbitration (1888) • Penal and Reformatory Work (1877) • The Press (1874) • Purity in Literature and Art: (suppression of impure literature) (1884) • Sabbath Observance: (1884) (suppression of Sabbath desecration) • Scientific Temperance Instruction (1874) • School Savings Banks (1891) • Social Meetings and Red Letter Days (1880) • Sunday School (1874) • Temperance and Labor (1881) • Temperance and Missions (1907) • The Bible in the Public Schools (1911) • Work Among Colored People (1880) • Work Among Foreigners (1880) • Work Among Indians (1884) • Work Among Lumbermen and Miners (1883) • Work Among Railroad Employees (1881) • Work Among Soldiers and Sailors (1881) • Young Women's Unions (1877) ==Current status==

, a building on the national register of historic places in Evanston, Illinois, has been the headquarters of the WCTU since 1910. The WCTU remains an internationally active organization. In American culture, although "temperance norms have lost a great deal of their power" Requirements for joining the WCTU include paying membership dues and signing a pledge to abstain from alcohol. The pledge of the Southern Californian WCTU, for example, is "I hereby solemnly promise, God helping me, to abstain from all distilled, fermented, and malt liquors, including beer, wine, and hard cider, and to employ all proper means to discourage the use of and traffic in the same." Current issues for the WCTU include alcohol, which the organization considers to be North America's number one drug problem, as well as illegal drugs, and abortion. The WCTU has warned against the dangers of tobacco since 1875. They continue to this day in their fight against those substances they see as harmful to society. The last edition of the WCTU's quarterly journal, titled The Union Signal, was published in 2015, the main focus of which was current research and information on drugs. Other national organizations also continue to publish. The WCTU also attempts to encourage young people to avoid substance abuse through participation in three age-divided suborganizations: White Ribbon Recruits for pre-schoolers, the Loyal Temperance Legion (LTL) for elementary school children, and the Youth Temperance Council (YTC) for teenagers. The White Ribbon Recruits are mothers who will publicly declare their dedication to keeping their babies drug-free. To do this, they participate in the White Ribbon Ceremony, but their children must be under six years of age. The mother pledges "I promise to teach my child the principles of total abstinence and purity", and the child gets a white ribbon tied to its wrist. The Loyal Temperance Legion (LTL), is another temperance group aimed at children. It is for children aged six to twelve who are willing to pay dues annually to the LTL. Its motto is "That I may give my best service to home and country, I promise, God helping me, Not to buy, drink, sell, or give alcoholic liquors while I live. From other drugs and tobacco I'll abstain, And never take God's name in vain." The Youth Temperance Council is the final type of group meant for youths and is aimed at teenagers. Its pledge is "I promise, by the help of God, never to use alcoholic beverages, other narcotics, or tobacco, and to encourage everyone else to do the same, fulfilling the command, 'keep thyself pure'." ==World's WCTU==

The World's WCTU (WWCTU) is one of the most prominent examples of internationalism, evidenced by the circulation of the Union Signal around the globe; the International Conventions that were held with the purpose of focusing "world attention on the temperance and women's questions, and the appointment of "round-the-world missionaries." Examples of international Conventions include the one in 1893 scheduled to coincide with the Chicago World's Fair; the London Convention in 1895; the 1897 one in Toronto; and the Glasgow one in 1910. The first six round-the-world missionaries were Mary C. Leavitt, Jessie Ackermann, Alice Palmer, Mary Allen West, Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew, and Katharine Bushnell. The ambition, reach and organizational effort involved in the work undertaken by the World's WCTU leave it open to cynical criticism in the 21st century, but there is little doubt that at the end of the 19th century, "they did believe earnestly in the efficacy of women's temperance as a means for uplifting their sex and transforming the hierarchical relations of gender apparent across a wide range of cultures." South Africa Amongst the presidents of the Cape Colony WCTU was Georgiana Solomon, who eventually became a world vice-president. New Zealand As early as 6 August 1884, under the leadership of Eliza Ann Palmer Brown in Invercargill, a WCTU branch had started in New Zealand. Arriving in January 1885, a prominent American missionary, Mary Leavitt, traveled to Auckland, New Zealand to spread the message of the WCTU. For the next eight years, Leavitt traveled around New Zealand establishing WCTU branches and advocating for women to, "protect their homes and families from liquor, by claiming their rightful voice" and work to end the over-consumption of alcohol through gaining the vote. Specifically, the 1892 WCTU petition was signed by Louisa Matahau of Hauraki and Herewaka Poata from Gisborne, and the 1893 petition was also signed by Matilda Ngapua from Napier and four other Māori women using European names instead. Some prominent New Zealand suffragists and WCTU members include Kate Sheppard, Learmonth Dalrymple, Meri Te Tai Mangakāhia, Elizabeth Caradus, Kate Milligan Edger, Christina Henderson, Annie Schnackenberg, Anne Ward, and Lily Atkinson. Canada The WCTU formed in Canada in 1874, in Owen Sound, Ontario. and spread across Canada. The Newfoundland branch played an important part in campaigning for women's suffrage on the grounds that women were vital in the struggle for prohibition. In 1885 Letitia Youmans founded an organization which was to become the leading women's society in the national temperance movement. Youmans is often credited with spreading the organization across the country. One notable member was Edith Archibald of Nova Scotia. Notable Canadian feminist Nellie McClung was also involved. Newfoundland The Newfoundland chapter of the WCTU formed in September 1890. Early supporters included Reverend Mr. A.D. Morton, the Methodist minister of Gower Street Church, and local women such as Emma Peters, Lady Jeanette Thorburn, Jessie Ohman, Maria C. Williams, Elizabeth Neyle, Margaret Chancey, Ceclia Fraser, Rev. Mrs. Morton, Mrs. E.H. Bulley, Tryphenia Duley, Sarah (Rowsell) Wright and Fanny Stowe. The WCTU agitated for women's suffrage in the Dominion especially in the wake of the sacrifices of WW1, but did not see this realized until 1925. India The WCTU formed in India was formed in the 1880s. It publishes Temperance Record and White Ribbon, remaining very active today. Australia The first Woman's Christian Temperance Union in Sydney was formed by Euphemia Bridges Bowes in 1882 although other sources credit the start to later visits from Jessie Ackermann in 1889 and 1891; a number of other Christian Temperance and Abstinence Societies existed throughout Australia before that time. Sara Susan Nolan succeeded Euphemia Bridges Bowes as president in Sydney in 1892. Jessie Ackermann acted as the round the world missionary for the American-based World's WCTU, and became the inaugural president of the federated Australasian WCTU, Australia's largest women's reform group. Maria Elizabeth Kirk was the first secretary. The union were active in the struggle for the extension of the franchise to women through promoting suffrage societies, collecting signatures for petitions and lobbying members of parliament. (See, for example, Women's suffrage in Australia.) After visiting New Zealand, Miss Ackermann came to Hobart in May 1889, then toured the mainland for almost 12 months, stopping in Adelaide, Port Augusta, Clare, Kapunda and Burra in June to August, Mount Gambier, Brisbane, Sydney, and Bathurst. She returned for a further visit, including Melbourne in 1891. In Victoria, weekly temperance conferences were held at the East Melbourne home of Margaret McLean, a founding member and coordinator of the Melbourne branch of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union of Victoria; she was president of the organisation for two periods, 1892–93 and 1899–1907. Jessie Mary Lloyd (1883–1960) was the WCTU State President in 1930 when a poll of Victoria returned 43% in favour of a ban on alcohol. The Queensland chapter established itself by 1928 at Willard House, River Road (now Coronation Drive), North Quay, near the Brisbane River. The state organiser in 1930 was Zara Dare who went on to become one of the first female police officers in Queensland in 1931. Sweden The Swedish WCTU, known as Vita Bandet (White Ribbon) was founded by Emilie Rathou in Östermalm in Stockholm in 1900. Rathou was a leading member of the International Organisation of Good Templars, and the pioneer for organizing the WCTU and its local branches in Sweden. ==Woman's Temperance Publishing Association==

The Woman's Temperance Publishing Association (WPTA) was located in Chicago from 1880 until 1903. It was conceptualized by Matilda B. Carse and established initially in Indianapolis by Zerelda G. Wallace. They thought there was a need for a weekly temperance paper for women of color. The creators wanted the first board of directors to be seven women who had the same vision as Carse. ==Conventions==

WCTU • 1874, Cleveland, Ohio • 1875, Cincinnati, Ohio • 1876, Newark, New Jersey • 1877, Chicago, Illinois • 1878, Baltimore, Maryland • 1879, Indianapolis, Indiana • 1880, Boston, Massachusetts • 1881, Washington, D.C. • 1882, Louisville, Kentucky • 1883, Detroit, Michigan • 1884, St. Louis, Missouri • 1885, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • 1886, Minneapolis, Minnesota • 1887, Nashville, Tennessee • 1888, New York, New York • 1889, Chicago, Illinois • 1890, Atlanta, Georgia • 1891, Boston, MA • 1892, Denver, CO • 1893, Chicago, IL • 1894, Cleveland, OH • 1895, Baltimore, MD • 1896, St. Louis, MO • 1897, Buffalo, NY • 1898, St. Paul, MN • 1899, Seattle, WA • 1900, Washington, DC • 1901, Fort Worth, TX • 1902, Portland, ME • 1903, Cincinnati, OH • 1904, Philadelphia, PA • 1905, Los Angeles, CA • 1906, Hartford, CT • 1907, Nashville, TN • 1908, Denver, CO • 1909, Omaha, NE • 1910, Baltimore, MD • 1911, Milwaukee, WI • 1912, Portland, OR • 1913, Asbury, NY • 1914, Atlanta, GA • 1915, Settle, WA • 1916, Indianapolis, IN • 1917, Washington, DC • 1918, Chicago, IL • 1919, St. Louis, MD • 1920, Washington, DC National WCTU • 1891, Boston, Massachusetts • 1892, Denver, Colorado • 1893, Chicago, Illinois • 1894, Cleveland, Ohio • 1895, Baltimore, Maryland • 1896, St. Louis, Missouri • 1897, Buffalo, New York • 1898, St. Paul, Minnesota • 1899, Seattle, Washington • 1900, Washington, D.C. • 1901, Fort Worth, Texas • 1902, Portland, Maine • 1903, Cincinnati, Ohio • 1904, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • 1905, Los Angeles, California • 1906, Hartford, Connecticut • 1907, Nashville, Tennessee • 1908, Denver, Colorado • 1909, Omaha, Nebraska • 1910, Baltimore, Maryland • 1911, Milwaukee, Wisconsin • 1912, Portland, Oregon • 1913, Asbury Park, New Jersey • 1914, Atlanta, Georgia • 1915, Seattle, Washington • 1916, Indianapolis, Indiana • 1917, Washington, D.C. • 1918, St. Louis, Missouri • 1919, St. Louis, Missouri • 1920, Washington, D.C. • 1921, San Francisco, California • 1922, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • 1923, Columbus, Ohio • 1924 • 1925, Detroit, Michigan • 1926 • 1927 • 1928, Boston, Massachusetts • 150th, 2023, Reno, Nevada World's WCTU • 1891 Boston, U.S. • 1893 Chicago, U.S. • 1895 London, England • 1897 Toronto, Canada • 1900 Edinburgh, Scotland • 1903 Geneva, Switzerland • 1906 Boston, U.S. • 1910 Glasgow, Scotland • 1913 Brooklyn, New York, U.S. • 1920 London, England • 1922 Philadelphia, U.S. • 1925 Edinburgh, Scotland • 1928 Lausanne, Switzerland • 1931 Toronto, Canada • 1934 Stockholm, Sweden ==Notable people==

Presidents was president of the WCTU for 19 years. The presidents of the WCTU and their terms of office are: • 1874–1879Annie Turner Wittenmyer • 1879–1898Frances Willard • 1898–1914Lillian M. N. Stevens • 1914–1925Anna Adams Gordon • 1925–1933Ella A. Boole • 1933–1944Ida B. Wise • 1944–1953Mamie White Colvin • 1953–1959Agnes Dubbs Hays • 1959–1974Ruth Tibbets Tooze • 1974–1980Edith Kirkendall Stanley • 1980–1988Martha Greer Edgar • 1988–1996Rachel Bubar Kelly • 1996–2006Sarah Frances Ward • 2006–2014Rita Kaye Wert • 2014–2019Sarah Frances Ward • 2019–CurrentMerry Lee Powell Frances Willard In 1874 Willard was elected the new secretary of the WCTU. Five years later, in 1879, she became its president. Willard also started her own organization, called the World's Women Christian Temperance Union, in 1883. After becoming WCTU's president, Willard broadened the views of the group by including woman's rights reforms, abstinence, and education. As its president for 19 years, she focused on moral reform of prostitutes and prison reform as well as woman's suffrage. With the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, Willard's predictions that women voters "would come into government and purify it, into politics and cleanse the Stygian pool" could be tested. Frances Willard died in February 1898 at the age of 58 in New York City. A plaque commemorating Willard's election to president of the WCTU in 1879 by Lorado Taft is in the Indiana Statehouse, Indianapolis, Indiana. Matilda Bradley Carse Matilda B. Carse became an activist after her son was killed in 1874 by a drunk wagon driver. She joined the Chicago Central Christian Woman's Temperance Union to try to eliminate alcohol consumption. In 1878 she became the president of the Chicago Central Christian Woman's Temperance Union, and in 1880 she helped organize the Woman's Temperance Publishing Association, selling the stock to rich women. That same year she also started The Signal; three years later it merged with another newspaper to become The Union Signal. It became the most important woman's newspaper and soon sold more copies than any other newspaper. It was Carse who was driving force behind the construction of Chicago's Temperance Temple. During her time as president, Carse founded many charities and managed to raise approximately $60,000,000 a year to support them. She started the Bethesda Day Nursery for working mothers, two kindergarten schools, the Anchorage Mission for erring girls, two dispensaries, two industrial schools, an employment bureau, Sunday schools, and temperance reading rooms. ==See also==