Wangerooge Frisian

Classification Wangerooge Frisian was a variety of the East Frisian language once spoken on Wangerooge, an island in the Wadden Sea. Whether it is a dialect of the East Frisian language or forms a separate language within a larger East Frisian language family is the subject of scholarly debate. The Dutch Frisian scholar has argued that based on the evidence, it is likely that the difference between Wangerooge and Saterland Frisian – the only living East Frisian language – was at least as divergent as the Mainland Scandinavian languages are from one another, "if not more so". Wangerooge Frisian is descended from the eastern Old Frisian dialect now known as Old Weser Frisian, the language of the Rüstring Manuscripts. It is closely related to the other two descendants of Old Weser Frisian, Wursten and Harlingerland Frisian, both of which are also now extinct. Whether the language of the Rüstring Manuscripts is the direct ancestor of Wangerooge and Wursten Frisian is debated; Patrick Stiles argues that the language of the manuscripts is extremely close phylogenetically, but not the parent language, whereas Bremmer describes Wangerooge and Wursten Frisian as descendants. Wangerooge Frisian is considered to be among the most conservative forms of the Frisian languages. Compared with several Frisian languages and dialects, as well as English and Scots, Wangerooge Frisian shows the highest percentage of archaic features and is second-highest – nearly tied with Mooring Frisian – in irregular forms, including innovative and conservative irregularities. Documentation The earliest documentation of Wangerooge Frisian was done by the German naturalist Ulrich Jasper Seetzen, who visited the island in 1799. Shortly thereafter, during the winter of 1806–1807, Lorenz Oken – another German naturalist – followed suit. Around this time, there were about two hundred speakers. The dialect of Wangerooge is well-attested, largely due to the efforts of , a German jurist from Jever. Most of his collection comprises fairy tales, ethnographic works, and texts about life on the island. With the help of his principal informant Anna Metta Claßen, an elderly Wangerooge native, Ehrentraut published most of his work on the dialect in (), his briefly-published academic journal. The journal only saw two volumes, one in 1849 and one in 1854, though his fieldwork took place on four expeditions between 1837 and 1841. The majority of the recorded materials from these trips were written accounts of Claßen's speech. In 1996, Versloot was able to publish the rest of Ehrentraut's documentation after he gained access to his . Ehrentraut's work comprises the majority of the extant corpora. Only a few sources were collected in the 19th century after Ehrentraut's expeditions. Among them are a handful of collected texts published in an 1854 compendium and a translation of the Parable of the Prodigal Son published twenty years later. In the 1920s, Enno Littmann and Theodor Siebs published some data on Wangerooge Frisian, though the data collection took place in or around 1900. Littmann, however, admitted to actively editing the speech of his informants, some marked with brackets or comments while others are completely unmarked. For example, he repeatedly applies , the masculine possessive determiner, "against other information in [his] transcript", so it is unknown what term his informants actually used. While Ehrentraut's account is generally considered to be the most reliable record, he may have also introduced some effects of normalization. It is possible, for example, that he used historical spelling in some words which did not capture elided sounds he noted elsewhere in his work. Siebs captured several audio recordings in the 1920s as well. Between 1924 and 1925, the German linguist collected a series of sound recordings of the dialect too, though full transcriptions of these have not been published. A small corpus of Wangerooge Frisian documents published in the 1920s and 1930s by the () was discovered through a digital search of the . The corpus comprises the parts of the society's bulletin. Most notable among them is a birthday invitation given to the founder of the society – a schoolteacher named Otto Luths – by his aunt Louwine in 1934, which includes a German-language gloss mostly likely provided by Otto himself. The invitation has several noteworthy departures from the language recorded by Ehrentraut and others nearly a hundred years earlier. For example, the term is attested in the 19th-century source material as 'maternal aunt', but Louwine calls herself Otto's despite being related to him through his father's line. Ehrentraut developed his own German-based orthography for Wangerooge Frisian, which marked long vowels with a circumflex diacritic and stress with an acute. In the 1874 corpus, the editor Johan Winkler was clearly influenced by Ehrentraut's earlier orthography. For instance, he used for the centering diphthong . However, this compendium departs by marking a subscript r for an unpronounced but historically-present , such as in () and (); despite the orthographic representation, these words were pronounced as if they were spelled and , respectively. Versloot modified Ehrentraut's orthography in 1996, marking long vowels by doubling them and marking stress with an acute; when a long vowel is stressed, the acute is marked on the first vowel in the duplication. Taken together, the entirety of the surviving texts have around 100,000 words in total with several thousand unique lexical tokens. While many of the works are unique to Wangerooge Frisian, several others are translations from German, usually biblical texts. Decline Although well-documented, the dialect is now extinct. Around 1854, Wangerooge had a population of about 400, but a devastating storm – now known as the () – struck the western side of the island between Christmas and New Year's Eve. A storm surge on New Year's Eve that continued into the following day destroyed significant portions of the island's only village and by 1861, the island's population had dwindled to only eighty-six residents. Following the Oldenburg government's rebuilding of the island in 1863, speakers of other languages began to outnumber the native Frisian-speaking population, who stopped passing it on to their children. The majority of the island's inhabitants later moved to a small community outside of Varel which they called "New Wangerooge" (), but they soon adopted the Low German spoken in the area and the national language, High German. In 1890, the German census only counted thirty-two speakers while around ten years later, Siebs reported thirty-six, though they could "no longer [speak] completely clearly"; these thirty-six are considered to have been semi-speakers. When he traveled to Varel in 1927, their number had shrunk to seven elderly speakers around eighty or older. The last person known to have spoken Wangerooge Frisian died in 1950 in Varel. The two last speakers of the dialect were Heinrich Christian Luths and Hayo Hayen, who both died the same year, though they were likely rememberers or semi-speakers rather than fluent speakers. ==Phonology==

Vowels Ehrentraut mentions in his work that /a/ and /ɛ/ both had long forms based on their stress. This vowel length system appears to have been attested by other researchers operating around the same time as Ehrentraut. The dialect's short diphthongs were /ai/, /au/, /oi/, /ou/, and /ju/; its long diphthongs were /oːi/, /joː/, and /juː/. The phonemes /œ/ and /œː/ were probably loan phonemes. Historically, the Old Frisian diphthongs and merged after liquids in Wangerooge. While Wurster Frisian had a stronger tendency towards vowel harmony, the Wangerooge dialect also exhibits some of the characteristics; both regressive harmony from the word-final vowel and progressive harmony from the root vowel are attested. Like other Weser Frisian dialects, final /i/, /u/, and /o/ did not neutralize to schwa in coda. To what extent /y/ existed alongside /y:/ remains unclear. In 1932, the Swedish Germanicist published work which described the processes by which short vowels in the stem became long in Old Weser Frisian, now termed the "replicated a-umlaut". This process describes the lengthening of short and in open syllables in the word stem as long as the following vowel was not . Some instances of the resulting long were later rounded in Wangerooge Frisian. Before , these vowels underwent a phonological merger with and , respectively. Examples of this process include () as compared with (), where the final represents a historical . At an earlier point in Wangerooge Frisian, known as Old Wangeroogic, final and were lengthened following historically light syllables, explaining the long at the end of . Old Wangeroogic also experienced a shift from to long in coda as well. It is unclear precisely under what circumstances Wangerooge Frisian vowels underwent rounding. It appears that the vowels were rounded if the following vowel was rounded – such as as compared to , the form found in the Rüstring Manuscripts – and in contexts where the vowel was adjacent to a labial, such as in () from Old East Frisian , or a liquid consonant, as in () from an earlier unattested . Blocking probably occurred if a long was found in the following syllable, as in (). Consonants The consonantal makeup of Wangerooge Frisian is unique in the family in several ways. For one, the rhotic sound was apical instead of alveolar; although this was once common, it is rare among Germanic languages today. Similarly, the dialect has a complete absence of word-initial voiced fricatives. Unlike other Germanic languages, Wangerooge Frisian did not undergo final-obstruent devoicing. The cluster was simplified from Old Frisian to a simple , as in () from Old Frisian attested in the Rüstring Manuscripts. While the distribution of dental fricatives was predetermined by position in Old Frisian, the elision of some sounds during the development of the Wangerooge dialect allowed the voiced phoneme to be pronounced in different positions than in earlier forms of the language, namely in word-final position. Based on this historical apocope, this only occurred after long vowels and diphthongs, such as in () and (), respectively. As early as Oken's 1806 visit, the dental fricatives began to collapse into dental stops, which continued to at least until Ehrentraut's journeys during the first half of the 19th century. Oken described the sound as similar – but not identical – to "the English tongue-thrust th () and stated that not everyone he studied could pronounce the fricative as such. In some instances, became . The phonemes , , , , , , , , , , and all had geminate forms and it is likely that the same is true for , , , and . It is unlikely had a geminate form. Old Weser Frisian underwent a process of "vowel balance", whereby certain vowels were found at the end of words based on the internal structure of the preceding syllable. This process affected the stress pattern of both the Wangerooge and Wursten dialects which are descended from it. A characteristic of the history of Wangerooge Frisian is the excrescence of following a schwa flanked by dental stops or a voiced dental fricative in syllabic coda. However, by the time of Ehrentraut, this sound change had been largely reanalyzed through other processes. This insertion also sometimes occurred in contexts in which the schwa was flanked by /n/, such as in the phrase , where the expected form is . ==Morphology==

Morphologically, Wangerooge Frisian distinguished between two numbers (singular and plural) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). While gender is not interpretable from the noun itself, it is marked by the use of other syntactic markers such as definite articles, demonstratives, adjectives, anaphoric and possessive pronouns, and numerals. Gender is not distinguishable in the plural with the use of articles. Wangerooge Frisian preserved some archaic i-mutations which were leveled in other Germanic languages, such as which can be compared with the Early Modern English form kine. Despite this, the dialect also experienced some i-mutation leveling that did not occur in other, more innovative languages, such as pluralizing () as from an earlier form; this form is irregular, but an innovated form as the expected outcome would be or . The pluralizing suffix was later extended to nouns which denoted livestock and household members. This included works like from the original suffixless Old Frisian term , as well as others such as (), (), (), and possibly (). ==Vocabulary and syntax==

Despite the relative isolation of the island, terminology was influenced by the mainland. Terms like were borrowed directly from German (), while others were calqued instead, such as () from German . The dialect also experienced semantic influence from German. The term (), for example, originally meant (as a ship or a gun), but semantic contamination from German () appears to have shifted the meaning, as demonstrated in Louwine Luths's birthday invitation. The dialect experienced some innovation over the course of its existence. The term (), composed of () and (), is not found as a compound in the Ehrentraut corpora. Some verbs were displaced, such as Old Frisian (), which remained only in a few fossilized phrases ( , ) and affixed terms (, ). Other verbs had suppletive forms, such as (), which had its suppletive past tense and past participle form () taken from the otherwise unattested word (, ). These suppletive forms were more common in the East Frisian dialects than in any of the other Frisian dialects or Germanic languages. The term , originally meaning , was grammaticalized into a copula and is well-attested in Ehrentraut's corpus. Shortly thereafter, this grammaticalization halted and began to completely reverse; there are no attested uses of the copular beginning in the second half of the 19th century and onward, despite there being over a hundred such examples in Ehrentraut's records. During the period in which was used as a copula, it retained its use as a verb meaning , as attested in the following example from Ehrentraut's corpus: The use of was common, but is nearly always only found in the third-person singular present context as . In other grammatical contexts, the original copula () was used. Although Old Frisian almost always required a dummy subject, Wangerooge Frisian exhibits a pro-drop tendency; the demonstrative , for example, is dropped before a little more than fifty percent of the time. Like other Germanic languages, Wangerooge Frisian exhibited qualities of a verb-second word order. It only appears to have followed this word order in complement clauses. An example is given below, where the brackets indicate a complement clause. Wangerooge Frisian distinguished between two kinds of definite articles, a strong and a weak form. The forms are as follows: The word was an alternative form of the weak neuter definite article. It appears to have been interchangeable with the form. Alternate forms include , , , . The form was a possible allomorph of before dental stops; was similarly allomorphic before dental stops where and are otherwise expected. The reduction may also occur after certain prepositions, as exemplified below: The difference between the strong and weak forms of the definite article had syntactic and semantic functions. The strong forms were used in common in anaphoric contexts, expressions of time, and most contexts in which an unfamiliar referent is mentioned. Below is an example of an anaphoric context: The weak forms were found in proper nouns, such as ('Turkey') and ('the Thames'), and in generic references, as in (). Superlative forms could be weak ( 'the nicest silk clothes') or strong ( 'the nearest inn'). == See also ==