Information about ("nourishing life") health cultivation was traditionally confined to
received texts, including the
Chinese classics, until the discovery of second-century BCE medical manuscripts in the 1970s, which expanded this corpus.
Han manuscripts '',
Warring States period (c. 475-221 BCE) During the
Western Han dynasty (202 BCE – 9 CE), Chinese archaeologists excavated manuscript copies of ancient texts, some previously unknown, from tombs. Among these were several historically significant medical books, which later became known as the "medical manuals."
Scribes occasionally copied texts onto valuable
silk, but more commonly used
bamboo and wooden slips, the standard medium for writing documents in China before the widespread
introduction of paper during the
Eastern Han period (25 BCE–220 CE). In 1973, fifteen medical manuscripts, part of the
Mawangdui Silk Texts, were excavated at the
Mawangdui archaeological site in modern
Changsha,
Hunan. Additionally, two medical manuscripts from the
Zhangjiashan Han bamboo texts were discovered in 1983 at Mount Zhangjia () in
Jiangling County,
Hubei. Both sites were located in the Han-era
Changsha Kingdom (202 BCE–33 CE). The
Mawangdui manuscripts were found in a tomb dated to 168 BCE, while Harper places their redaction in the third century BCE. Six of the fifteen texts can be directly related to the medical tradition of nourishing life. Two of these, and , primarily focus on techniques of sexual cultivation and
essence preservation. Two other texts, and , similarly contain sections on sexology, but also discuss breathing techniques,
food therapies, and medicines. The focuses mainly on techniques for eliminating grains and ordinary foodstuffs from the diet, replacing them with medicinal herbs and , through special exercises. The text repeatedly contrasts "those who eat qi" with "those who eat grain," explaining this in
cosmological terms: "Those who eat grain eat what is square; those who eat eat what is round. Round is heaven; square is earth." The includes color illustrations of human figures performing therapeutic gymnastics. Some captions refer to the names of exercises, such as and , which are also mentioned in the and other texts. The cache of manuscripts, written on bamboo slips, was excavated from a tomb dated to 186 BCE and contained two significant medical books. The comprises several texts listing ailments and describing the eleven
meridians before the addition of the pericardium channel. The collection is closely related to the meridian texts and both briefly describe practices of nourishing life. The outlines a daily and seasonal health regimen, including hygiene, dietetics, sleep, and recovery. It then details fifty-seven preventative and curative gymnastic exercises, along with massage techniques, and concludes with the etiology and prevention of diseases. The text recommends various therapies, such as breathing exercises, bodily stretches, and careful treatment of the interior . It states: "If you can pattern your properly and maintain your energy in fullness, then the whole person will benefit." The manuscript considers longevity techniques to be limited to the aristocracy and upper classes, distinguishing between "upper class people," who fall ill due to uncontrolled emotions like extreme joy or rage, and less-fortunate individuals, whose diseases tend to be caused by excessive labor, hunger, thirst, and poor or evil (air). The latter group, lacking the opportunity to learn essential breathing exercises, consequently becomes sick and dies at an early age. The manuscript is considered the "earliest known systematized description of therapeutic exercise in China, and possibly anywhere in the world."
Han texts ,
Yuan dynasty painting, 14th century Classics from the
Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE) first mention techniques. The Daoist includes early descriptions of , notably in Chapter 3, titled , which is part of the pre-Han "Inner Chapters" attributed to
Zhuang Zhou (c. 369–286 BCE). In the fable about Lord Wenhui () coming to understand the Dao while watching Cook Ding () cut up an ox, he exclaims how wonderful it is "that skill can attain such heights!" The cook replies, "What your servant loves is the Way, which goes beyond mere skill. When I first began to cut oxen, what I saw was nothing but whole oxen. After three years, I no longer saw whole oxen. Today, I meet the ox with my spirit rather than looking at it with my eyes. My sense organs stop functioning and my spirit moves as it pleases. In accord with the natural grain , I slice at the great crevices, lead the blade through the great cavities. Following its inherent structure, I never encounter the slightest obstacle even where the veins and arteries come together or where the ligaments and tendons join, much less from obvious big bones." ... " "Wonderful!" said Lord Wenhui. "From hearing the words of the cook, I have learned how to nourish life ." Two other chapters of the mention . In one instance, Duke Wei (), the younger brother of
King Kao of Zhou (r. 440–426 BCE), asks Tian Kaizhi () what he had learned from his master Zhu Shen (). Tian replies, "I have heard my master say, 'He who is good at nurturing life is like a shepherd . If he sees one of his sheep lagging behind, he whips it forward.'" To explain this, Tian contrasts two figures: a frugal Daoist hermit named Solitary Leopard (), who lived in the cliffs, drank only water, and remained healthy until the age of seventy when a tiger killed him, with a wealthy businessman named Chang Yi (), who rushed about in search of profits but died of
typhoid fever at the age of forty. Tian explains: "Leopard nourished his inner being and the tiger ate his outer person. Yi nourished his outer person and sickness attacked his inner being. Both of them failed to whip their laggards forward." This shepherding metaphor recalls the ancient characters for , such as , which combine and , denoting "shepherd; tend sheep," as discussed above. The latter story concerns the Lord of
Lu (), who heard that the Daoist Yan He () had attained the Way and dispatched a messenger with presents for him. Yan "was waiting by a rustic village gate, wearing hempen clothing and feeding a cow by himself." When the messenger attempted to deliver the gifts, Yan said, "I'm afraid that you heard incorrectly and that the one who sent you with the presents will blame you. You had better check." The messenger returned to the ruler, who instructed him to go back with the presents, but he could never find Yan He again, as Yan disliked wealth and honor. He then reflected: "Judging from this, the achievements of emperors and kings are the leftover affairs of the sages, not that which fulfills the person or nourishes life . Most of the worldly gentlemen of today endanger their persons and abandon life in their greed for things. Is this not sad?" Three chapters of the
Zhuangzi mention . One of these contains the earliest Chinese reference to methods of controlling and regulating the breath. It describes calisthenics, which typically involve bending, stretching, and mimicking animal movements. Blowing and breathing, exhaling and inhaling, expelling the old and taking in the new, bear strides and bird stretches—all this is merely indicative of the desire for longevity. But it is favored by scholars who channel the vital breath and flex the muscles and joints, men who nourish the physical form so as to emulate the hoary age of
Progenitor P'eng. Although the
Zhuangzi considers physical calisthenics inferior to more meditative techniques, it provides a highly detailed description of them. Another chapter of the Zhuangzi describes the limitations of : "How sad that the people of the world think that nourishing the physical form is sufficient to preserve life! But when it turns out that nourishing the physical form is insufficient for the preservation of life, what in the world can be done that is sufficient?" The
Huainanzi, compiled in 139 BCE and attributed to
Liu An, is an eclectic work drawing from various
Hundred Schools of Thought, particularly
Huang–Lao religious Daoism. Chapter 7 of the
Huainanzi echoes
Zhuangzi 15 in disparaging techniques, arguing that they rely too heavily on external supports. If you huff and puff, exhale and inhale, blow out the old and pull in the new, practice the Bear Hang, the Bird Stretch, the Duck Splash, the Ape Leap, the Owl Gaze, and the Tiger Stare: This is what is practiced by those who nurture the body . They are not the practices of those who polish the mind . They make their spirit overflow, without losing its fullness. When, day and night, without injury, they bring the spring to external things , they unite with, and give birth to, the seasons in their own minds. This criticism provides "a fascinating glimpse into the similarities," perceived even in the second century BCE, "between the cultivation practiced for physical benefits and the cultivation practiced for more transformative and deeply satisfying spiritual benefits, which seems to have involved more still sitting than active movement." The
Huainanzi uses the term to refer to mind-body techniques such as dietary regimens, breathing meditation, and macrobiotic yoga. "Since nature is the controlling mechanism of both consciousness and vitality, 'nourishing one's nature' produces both elevated states of consciousness and beneficial conditions of bodily health and longevity." For instance, Tranquility and calmness are that by which the nature is nourished . Harmony and vacuity are that by which Potency is nurtured . When what is external does not disturb what is internal, then our nature attains what is suitable to it. When the harmony of nature is not disturbed, then Potency will rest securely in its position. Nurturing life so as to order the age, embracing Potency so as to complete our years, this may be called being able to embody the Way. Another passage in the compares five - ("nourish; nurture") techniques. In governing the self, it is best to nurture the spirit . The next best is to nurture the body . In governing the state, it is best to nurture transformation . The next best is to correct the laws. A clear spirit and a balanced will, the hundred joints all in good order, constitute the root of nurturing vitality . To fatten the muscles and skin, to fill the bowel and belly, to satiate the lusts and desires, constitute the branches of nurturing vitality .” The
Huangdi Neijing ("Inner Classic of the
Yellow Emperor"), dating to approximately the first century BCE, discusses a variety of healing therapies, including medical acupuncture, moxibustion, and herbal medicine, as well as life-nourishing practices such as gymnastics, massage, and dietary regulation. The fundamental principle of longevity practices, which runs throughout the text "like a red thread," is the prevention of disease by preserving vital forces for as long as possible. The section reflects the early immortality cult and states that ancient sages, who lived in harmony with the , could easily reach a lifespan of one hundred years. However, it laments that "these good times are over now, and people today do not know how to cultivate their life." The astronomer, naturalist, and skeptical philosopher
Wang Chong (c. 80 CE) critiques many Daoist beliefs in his ("Critical Essays"), particularly the concept of . The contains only one mention of . In the "All About Ghosts" () chapter, Wang Chong explains how heavenly (translated as "fluid") develops into both ghosts and living organisms: When the fluid is harmonious in itself, it produces and develops things when it is not, it does injury. First, it takes a form in heaven, then it descends and becomes corporeal on earth. Hence, when ghosts appear, they are made of this stellar fluid. Wang Chong's chapter critiques several practices, particularly the use of so-called "immortality" drugs, (grain avoidance), and Daoist yogic breathing exercises. Daoist (external alchemy) practitioners frequently compounded
elixirs of "immortality", some of which contained toxic ingredients such as
mercury and
arsenic, often leading to
elixir poisoning or death. One passage in the
Lunheng critiques this practice, repeating the phrase in a botanical analogy illustrating the natural process of aging. The human hair and beard, and the different colours of things, when young and old, afford another cue. When a plant comes out, it has a green colour, when it ripens, it looks yellow. As long as man is young, his hair is black, when he grows old, it turns white. Yellow is the sign of maturity, white of old age. After a plant has become yellow, it may be watered and tended ever so much, it does not become green again. When the hair has turned white, no eating of drugs nor any care bestowed upon one’s nature can make it black again. Black and green do not come back, how could age and decrepitude be laid aside? ... Heaven in developing things can keep them vigorous up till autumn, but not further on till next spring. By swallowing drugs and nourishing one's nature one may get rid of sickness, but one cannot prolong one's life, and become an immortal. While Wang Chong acknowledged that some medicines could improve health, he rejected the notion that any could transform a person into a (transcendent). The Taoists sometimes use medicines with a view to rendering their bodies more supple and their vital force stronger, hoping thus to prolong their years and to enter a new existence. This is a deception likewise. There are many examples that by the use of medicines the body grew more supple and the vital force stronger, but the world affords no instance of the prolongation of life and a new existence following. … The different physics cure all sorts of diseases. When they have been cured, the vital force is restored, and then the body becomes supple again. According to man’s original nature his body is supple of itself, and his vital force lasts long of its own accord. … Therefore, when by medicines the various diseases are dispelled, the body made supple, and the vital force prolonged, they merely return to their original state, but it is impossible to add to the number of years, let alone the transition into another existence. The "Taoist Untruths" chapter discusses Daoist grain-free diets in terms of and . It notes that Wangzi Qiao (), a son of
King Ling of Zhou (r. 571–545 BCE), practiced , as did
Li Shaojun (fl. 133 BCE). The idea prevails that those who abstain from eating grain , are men well versed in the art of Tao. They say e.g., that and the like, because they did not touch grain, and lived on different food than ordinary people, had not the same length of life as ordinary people, in so far as having passed a hundred years, they transcended into another state of being, and became immortals. That is another mistake. Eating and drinking are natural impulses, with which we are endowed at birth. Hence the upper part of the body has a mouth and teeth, the inferior part orifices. With the mouth and teeth one chews and eats, the orifices are for the discharge. Keeping in accord with one's nature, one follows the law of heaven, going against it, one violates one's natural propensities, and neglects one's natural spirit before heaven. How can one obtain long life in this way? … For a man not to eat is like not clothing the body. Clothes keep the skin warm, and food fills the stomach. With a warm epidermis and a well-filled belly the animal spirits are bright and exalted. If one is hungry, and has nothing to eat, or feels cold, and has nothing to warm one’s self, one may freeze or starve to death. How can frozen and starved people live longer than others? Moreover, during his life man draws his vital force from food, just as plants and trees do from earth. Pull out the roots of a plant or a tree, and separate them from the soil, and the plant will wither, and soon die. Shut a man's mouth, so that he cannot eat, and he will starve, but not be long-lived. Another passage describes (sometimes translated as "eats the fluid") as a method to avoid consuming grains. The Taoists exalting each other's power assert that the
"pure man" eats the fluid , that the fluid is his food. Wherefore the books say that the fluid-eaters live long, and do not die, that, although they do not feed on cereals, they become fat and strong by the fluid. This too is erroneous. What kind of fluid is understood by fluid? If fluid of the Yin and the Yang be meant, this fluid cannot satiate people. They may inhale this fluid, so that it fills their belly and bowels, yet they cannot feel satiated. If the fluid inherent in medicine be meant, man may use and eat a case full of dry drugs, or swallow some ten pills. But the effects of medicine are very strong. They cause great pain in the chest, but cannot feed a man. The meaning must certainly be that the fluid-eaters breathe, inhaling and exhaling, emitting the old air and taking in the new. Of old,
P'êng Tsu used to practise this. Nevertheless he could not live indefinitely, but died of sickness. In addition to ("eating
qi/breath") mentioned above, the
Lunheng also refers to Daoist breath yoga as Many Taoists hold that by regulating one's breath one can nourish one's nature , pass into another state of being, and become immortal. Their idea is that, if the blood vessels in the body be not always in motion, expanding and contracting, an obstruction ensues. There being no free passage, constipation is the consequence, which causes sickness and death. This is likewise without any foundation. Man’s body is like that of plants and trees. … When plants and trees, while growing, are violently shaken, they are injured, and pine away. Why then should man by drawing his breath and moving his body gain a long life and not die? The blood arteries traverse the body, as streams and rivers flow through the land. While thus flowing, the latter lose their limpidity, and become turbid. When the blood is moved, it becomes agitated also, which causes uneasiness. Uneasiness is like the hardships man has to endure without remedy. How can that be conducive to a long life? The Han Confucian moralist
Xun Yue (148–209) in his presents a viewpoint similar to Wang Chong's interpretation of cultivating the vital principle. He advocates for seeking moderation and harmony while avoiding excesses. Additionally, he emphasizes the importance of circulating the breath to prevent blockages and stagnation, much like the mythical
Yu the Great, who succeeded in controlling the floodwaters.
Six Dynasties texts During the
Six Dynasties period (222–589), practices continued to develop and diversify within Daoist traditions,
Xuanxue ("Arcane Learning"), and medical circles. The
polymath Ji Kang (223–262), one of the Daoist
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, authored a text titled . The early
Zhuangzi commentator
Xiang Xiu (227–272) wrote a critique with the same title, to which Ji Kang responded with . Ji Kang believed that achieving immortality was possible but only for individuals possessing extraordinary
qi. However, he argued that even those without exceptional
qi could significantly extend their lifespan—potentially to several hundred years—by practicing longevity techniques. The Daoist scholar
Ge Hong's 318 CE
Baopuzi ("Master Who Embraces Simplicity") describes various techniques for and , which Ware translates as "nurturing of life" and "fullness of life." Methods of include , , , and , all of which are early forms of what is now known as . Methods of include , , , , and . Ge Hong cites the . The Yellow Emperor rose into the sky and became a genie after taking this elixir. It adds that by merely doing the breathing exercises and calisthenics and taking herbal medicines one may extend one's years but cannot prevent ultimate death. Taking the divine elixir, however, will produce an interminable longevity and make one coeval with sky and earth; it lets one travel up and down in Paradise, riding clouds or driving dragons. The
Baopuzi distinguishes between longevity and immortality, categorizing
immortals into three types: celestial immortals (), earthly immortals (), and corpse-liberated immortals (). Engelhardt states, "The foundation of immortality in any form, then, is a healthy life. This means that one must avoid all excesses and prevent or heal all diseases." Taking a fundamentally pragmatic approach to (nourishing life) and (longevity) practices, Ge Hong asserts that "the perfection of any one method can only be attained in conjunction with several others." The taking of medicines may be the first requirement for enjoying Fullness of Life , but the concomitant practice of breath circulation greatly enhances speedy attainment of the goal. Even if medicines are not attainable and only breath circulation is practiced, a few hundred years will be attained provided the scheme is carried out fuIly, but one must also know the art of sexual intercourse to achieve such extra years. If ignorance of the sexual art causes frequent losses of sperm to occur, it will be difficult to have sufficient energy to circulate the breaths. There are inherent risks for practitioners who focus exclusively on a single technique, as over-specialization may lead to imbalances or unintended consequences. In everything pertaining to the nurturing of life one must learn much and make the essentials one's own; look widely and know how to select. There can be no reliance upon one particular specialty, for there is always the danger that breadwinners will emphasize their personal specialties. That is why those who know recipes for sexual intercourse say that only these recipes can lead to geniehood. Those who know breathing procedures claim that only circulation of the breaths can prolong our years. Those knowing methods for bending and stretching say that only calisthenics can exorcize old age. Those knowing herbal prescriptions say that only through the nibbling of medicines can one be free from exhaustion. Failures in the study of the divine process are due to such specializations. Ge Hong provides guidance on how to prevent illness, emphasizing the importance of maintaining balance and practicing various life-nourishing techniques. If you are going to do everything possible to nurture your life , you will take the divine medicines . In addition, you will never weary of circulating your breaths ; morning and night you will do calisthenics to circulate your blood and breaths and see that they do not stagnate. In addition to these things, you will practice sexual intercourse in the right fashion; you will eat and drink moderately; you will avoid drafts and dampness; you will not trouble about things that are not within your competence. Do all these things, and you will not fall sick. The
Baopuzi bibliography includes a now-lost text titled , which consisted of 105 . by Utagawa Yoshitsuna () The
Eastern Jin dynasty official and
Liezi commentator Zhang Zhan (張湛, fl. 370) authored one of the most influential works on yangsheng during the Six Dynasties period, the . For those seeking health and immortality, this text was regarded as equally important as the
Daodejing and . It served as "a widely available source of information for the educated but not necessarily initiated reader" until it was lost during the eighth century. The
Yangsheng yaoji holds significance in the history of techniques for three key reasons: it preserves citations from several earlier works that would have otherwise been lost, it established a standard textbook model that influenced later works, and it is the earliest known text to systematize and classify various longevity practices into an integrated system. Although the original text was lost, numerous fragments and citations survive, particularly in
Tao Hongjing's ,
Sun Simiao's 652 , and early Japanese medical texts such as the 984
Ishinpō (, "Methods from the Heart of Medicine"). During the
Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589), practices incorporated
Chinese Buddhist meditation techniques, particularly ("mindfulness of breathing"), as well as Indian gymnastic exercises. Daoist meditation methods such as and were influenced by these Buddhist practices.
Sui to Tang texts In the
Sui (561–618) and
Tang (618–907) dynasties, Daoist and medical circles transmitted essential techniques, particularly those related to gymnastics and breathing. The number of medical texts expanded significantly, increasing from 36 in the
Catalog of the Imperial Library of the Han to 256 in the
Catalog of the Imperial Library of the Sui. , Tang dynasty (618–907) The , compiled in 610 under imperial orders by an editorial committee supervised by the Sui physician and medical author
Chao Yuanfang, is a work of "unprecedented scope" and represents the first systematic treatise on the etiology and pathology of Chinese medicine. The text categorizes 1,739 diseases based on their causes and clinical symptoms, with many entries citing an anonymous text titled , which closely resembles the fourth-century
Yangsheng yaoji. Unlike standard medical texts prescribing herbal or acupuncture treatments, the
Zhubing yuanhou lun emphasizes techniques, including hygienic measures, dietary practices, gymnastics, massage, breathing exercises, and visualization methods. The renowned physician
Sun Simiao dedicated two chapters—Chapter 26, Dietetics, and Chapter 27, Longevity Techniques—of his 652 work, to life-nourishing methods. The is a vast compendium of Tang dynasty medical knowledge, regarded as the oldest surviving comprehensive source on Chinese therapeutics, and continues to be used in traditional medical training today. Sun Simiao also authored the , which is divided into five sections: prudence, prohibitions, daoyin gymnastics, guiding the
qi, and . The text identifies overindulgence in any form as a primary cause of illness. Additionally, several shorter texts are attributed to Sun Simiao, including the , the , and the . The Daoist
Shangqing School patriarch Sima Chengzhen (, 647–735) authored the in 730. This work presents an integrated framework of health practices, combining traditional Chinese physical techniques with the Buddhist-inspired practice of as preparatory steps for attaining and realizing the Dao. Drawing upon both Shangqing religious texts and major medical sources such as the
Huangdi Neijing, the
Fuqi jingyi lun organizes various longevity techniques around the central concept of absorbing
qi. In addition to providing practical instructions for specific exercises, the text incorporates theoretical medical knowledge, including discussions on the , disease healing, and symptom awareness.
Song to Qing texts painting by
Zhao Mengfu, 1301 "Separate Heaven and Earth" exercise,
Qing dynasty 17th-18th century practices underwent significant transformations beginning in the
Song dynasty (960–1279). They increasingly integrated elements from
neidan ("inner alchemy") and attracted scholarly interest. During the Song period alone, approximately twenty books were written on the subject. A notable author of the time was Zhou Shouzhong (), who wrote the and the , among other works. Prominent Song
literati and poets, such as
Su Shi (1007–1072) and
Su Dongpo (1037–1101), also wrote extensively on their personal longevity practices. Another significant work from this period was Chen Zhi’s () , the first Chinese text dedicated exclusively to
geriatrics. With the rise of
Neo-Confucianism and the increasing syncretism among Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism during the
Ming (1368–1644) and
Qing (1644–1912) dynasties, practices incorporated a number of ethical elements. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), numerous collections and compendia on longevity practices were published. Hu Wenhuan (), editor of the 1639 edition of
Jiuhuang Bencao ("Famine Relief Herbal"), compiled one of the most comprehensive works on , the , around 1596. This collection includes texts such as the and the . Some works from this period provide broad overviews of diverse longevity techniques. For example, the dramatist
Gao Lian (fl. 1573–1581) authored , which discusses
yangsheng diets, breathing methods, and medicinal practices. Other texts focus on a single technique, such as by the Neo-Confucian philosopher
Wang Ji (1498–1582). A significant development during the Ming dynasty was the increased integration and legitimization of techniques within medical literature. For instance, Yang Jizhou's () extensive 1601 work, , which remains a classic in traditional Chinese medicine, includes gymnastic exercises designed to regulate the
qi meridians. Unlike the Ming dynasty, the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) produced no significant works on yangsheng. In the twentieth century, yangsheng evolved in two distinct directions: it influenced the development of as a modern, Westernized science, while also contributing to the emergence of
qigong as a structured practice of breath and energy cultivation. Dear's anthropological study of ''yangsheng's
popularity and commercialization in early twenty-first-century China contrasts it with Qigong
fever, a social phenomenon of the 1980s and 1990s, during which the practice of qigong
gained extraordinary popularity, with an estimated peak of 60 to 200 million practitioners. While Qigong
fever had a "somewhat austere and salvationist aspect," the more recent Yangsheng fever, which shares many similarities in its pursuit of health and identity, "has a certain low-key decadence about it." For instance, the term yangsheng is now used to market luxury suburban villas, high-end health spas, extravagantly packaged medicinal products such as , and tourism to scenic natural landscapes, all of which serve as markers of the modern Yangsheng'' trend. ==References==