Origin The Northern Yuan dynasty was the remnant of the
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) founded by
Kublai Khan. After eliminating the
Song dynasty in 1279, the Yuan dynasty ruled all of
China proper for about a century. Even prior to the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols had ruled
Northern China for more than 40 years, since the time they conquered the Jurchen-led
Jin dynasty in 1234. Yuan rule in China proper began to collapse in
1344 when the Yellow River flooded and changed course, causing widespread droughts, flooding, and making the
Grand Canal impassable. In 1351, the
Red Turban Rebellion erupted in the
Huai River valley, which saw the rise of
Zhu Yuanzhang, a
Han peasant, who eventually established the
Ming dynasty (1368–1644) in southern China. In 1368, a Ming army advanced on the Yuan capital
Khanbaliq or Dadu (present-day
Beijing).
Retreat to Mongolian Steppe (1368–1388) after the Ming defeated Tögüs Temür in 1388.
Toghon Temür (r. 1333–1370), the last ruler of the Yuan, fled north to
Shangdu (located in present-day
Inner Mongolia) from Dadu upon the approach of Ming forces. He tried to regain Dadu but failed and died in
Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. The Mongols retreated to
Karakorum in the
Mongol heartland after the fall of Yingchang in 1370, where they maintained the official dynastic title "Great Yuan", known retroactively as the "Northern Yuan". The Ming army pursued the Yuan remnants into the Mongolian steppe in 1372 but was defeated by
Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (r. 1370–1378) and his general
Köke Temür (d. 1375). In 1375,
Naghachu, a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan in
Liaoyang province invaded
Liaodong with the aim of restoring Mongol power in China proper. Although he continued to hold southern
Manchuria,
Naghachu eventually surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1387–88. The Yuan loyalists under the Kublaid prince
Basalawarmi (the
Prince of Liang) in
Yunnan and
Guizhou were also
defeated and killed by the Ming earlier in 1381–82. In 1380, the Ming invaded Northern Yuan and sacked Karakorum, although they were eventually forced to withdraw. Around 70,000 Mongol captives were taken. In 1387, the Ming defeated
the Uriankhai Mongols, and in the following year they achieved
decisive victory around the Buir Lake against
Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür. The defeat of Uskhal Khan effectively shattered Yuan power in the steppes and allowed the Western
Oirat Mongols to rise and become the kingmakers of the Northern Yuan realm. The Genghisid (Major descendants of Kublai) rulers of the Northern Yuan also buttressed their claim on China, and held tenaciously to the title of
Emperor (or
Great Khan) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大元可汗) to resist the Ming, who had by this time become the true rulers of China proper. According to the traditional Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate dynasty whose rulers were blessed by Heaven to rule as
Emperor of China (see
Mandate of Heaven), so the Ming also denied the Yuan remnants' legitimacy as emperors of China, although the Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded to be a legitimate dynasty.
Oirat domination (1388–1478) In 1388, the Mongol throne was taken over by
Jorightu Khan Yesüder, a descendant of
Arik Böke (
Tolui's son), with the support of the Oirats. He abolished the
Han-style title of the former Yuan dynasty. In the following year, one of Uskhal Khan's subjects, Gunashiri, a descendant of
Chagatai Khan, founded his own small state called
Kara Del in
Hami. The following century saw a succession of Genghisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear designations such as "period of small kings" (
Бага хаадын үе). On one side stood the
Western Mongols and on the other the
Eastern Mongols. While the Oirats drew their khans from the descendants of Ariq Böke and other princes,
Arugtai of the
Asud supported the old Yuan khans of Kublaid descent. The
House of Ogedei also briefly attempted to reunite the Mongols under their rule. The Mongols eventually split into three main groups: the Oirats in the west, the
Uriankhai in northeast, and the Khorchin between the two. The Uriankhai surrendered to the Ming dynasty in the 1390s. The Ming divided them into the Three Guards: Doyin, Tai'nin and Fuyu. Mongol relations with the Ming dynasty consisted of sporadic bursts of conflict intermingled with periods of peaceful relations and border trade. The Oirat-backed
Örüg Temür Khan (Gulichi) was defeated by Elbeg Khan's son
Öljei Temür Khan (Bunyashiri, r. 1408–1412), the protégé of
Tamerlane (d. 1405), in 1403. Most of the Mongol noblemen under Arugtai
chingsang sided with Öljei Temur. The
Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) issued Öljei Temür an ultimatum demanding his acceptance of tributary relations to the Ming dynasty. Öljei Temur refused, resulting in the
Ming dynasty conducting several campaigns against the Mongols. In 1409, a Ming army of 100,000 entered Mongolia but suffered a defeat against Öljei Temur and Arugtai at the
Battle of Kherlen. In the following year, the Yongle Emperor personally led an expedition into Mongolia and defeated the Mongols. After the death of Öljei Temur, the Oirats under their leader Bahamu (
Mahmud) (d. 1417) enthroned an Ariq Bökid
Delbeg Khan in 1412. Originally the Ming had supported the Oirats in their power struggle with the eastern Mongols, but as the Oirats gained supremacy over them, the Ming withdrew their support. residual states and domains by the 15th century By 1422 Arugtai turned hostile again as the Ming did not grant him the trading privileges he wanted, and Yongle campaigned against him in 1422 and 1423. Bahamu's successor Toghan pushed Arugtai east of the
Greater Khingan range in 1433. The Oirats killed him in the west of
Baotou the next year. Arugtai's ally
Adai Khan (r. 1425–1438) made a last stand in
Ejin before he was murdered too. Toghan died in the very year of his victory over Adai. His son
Esen Taishi (r. 1438–1454) brought the Oirats to the height of their power. Under his puppet khans, he drove back
Moghulistan and crushed the Uriankhai Three Guards,
Kara Del and the
Jurchens. In 1449 he defeated a 500,000 strong Ming army and captured the
Zhengtong Emperor in what came to be known as the
Tumu Crisis. However, after this astounding victory, Esen failed to take the Ming capital of
Beijing. In the following year a peace was concluded between the two sides and the captive emperor was allowed to return home. After executing the rebellious
Tayisung Khan (r. 1433–1453) and his brother
Agbarjin in 1453, Esen took the title of not just khan, but also Yuan Emperor. This caused widespread dissent among the Genghisids, and in 1455, a series of revolts resulted in Esen's death. His death started the decline of the Oirats, who would not recover until their rise as the
Dzungar Khanate in the 17th century. From Esen's death to 1481 different
warlords of the
Kharchin, the
Belguteids and
Ordos Mongols fought over succession and had their Genghisid khans enthroned. The Mongolian chroniclers call some of them the
Uyghurs and they might have had some ties with the
Hami oasis. During his reign,
Manduulun Khan (1475–1478) effectively won over most of the Mongol warlords before he died in 1478.
Restoration (1479–1600) Second reunification Manduulun's young
khatun Mandukhai proclaimed a seven-year-old boy named
Batumongke of Genghisid descent as khan. Mandukhai made persistent efforts to bring the various Mongol tribes under control. The new khan took the title
Dayan meaning "the whole" or “Great Yuan” (大元; "Da Yuan"). Mandukhai and Dayan Khan defeated the Oirats and the taishis who ruled the
Yellow River Mongols. However, one of them killed Dayan Khan's son and revolted when Dayan Khan appointed his son, Ulusbold, as
jinong (crown prince) over them. Dayan Khan finally defeated the southwestern Mongols in 1510 with the assistance of his allies, Unebolad wang and the
Four Oirats. From 1495 onward, Dayan exerted pressure on the Ming dynasty, which closed border-trade and killed his envoys. Dayan invaded Ming territory and subjugated the Uriankhai Three Guards, who had previously submitted to the Ming. As a result, the
Tümed Mongols ruled in the
Ordos region and they gradually extended their domain into northeastern
Qinghai. In 1517, Dayan even threatened Beijing itself. Mongol armies raided the Ming dynasty not only in the north but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Ming dynasty lost Kara Del as a protectorate to the Turpan Khanate at the same time. Dayan kept defeating the Ming in battle right up until his death in 1543. At the apogee of Dayan's reign, the Northern Yuan stretched from the
Siberian
tundra and
Lake Baikal in the north, across the
Gobi, to the edge of the
Yellow River and south of it into the Ordos. The lands extended from the forests of
Manchuria in the East past the
Altai Mountains and out onto the steppes of
Central Asia. Dayan Khan's reorganization of the Mongols into six Eastern Mongol tümens (literally "ten thousand") and four Oirats tümens had far-reaching effects on the development of Mongol society. •
Left Wing: •
Khalkha tumen: Northern 7 otog:
Jalaid, Besud,
Eljigin,
Gorlos, Khökhüid (Khukhuid), Khataghin, and later added
Uriankhai. Southern 5 otog:
Baarin,
Jaruud,
Bayagud, Ujeed (Uchirad) and
Hongirad •
Chahar tumen:
Abaga,
Abaganar,
Aokhan,
Daurs,
Durved,
Hishigten,
Muumyangan,
Naiman,
Onnigud,
Huuchid,
Sunud,
Uzemchin, and
Urad •
Uriankhai tumen. This tumen was later dissolved. •
Right Wing: •
Ordos tumen •
Tümed tümen • Yünsheebüü (Yöngshiyebü) tümen (including
Asud and
Kharchin) •
Four tümen Oirats: •
Choros,
Olots,
Durvud,
Khoid,
Baatud,
Torghut,
Khoshut, Ur (Ör) Mongol,
Barga Mongols and
Buryats. The Barga and Buryats later became subject of Khalkha. The six Eastern Mongol tümens were granted to his 11 sons while the four Oirat tümens were ruled by taishi nobles. His youngest son
Gersenji Khongtaiji of the Jalayir became the ruler of the Khalkha Mongols, the largest of the six tümens. The tümens functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies who hoped to receive taijis, descended from Dayan Khan. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to the South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of the Three Guards, respectively. After the rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were conquered in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. However, his decision to divide the six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs-sons in the law of the taijis created a decentralized system of
Borjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for a century. Despite this decentralization, there was a remarkable concord within the new Mongol order created by Dayan Khan.
Last reunification in 1571 After Dayan Khan's death, the Mongols began falling apart again under the two succeeding khans. By 1540 new regional circles of taijis and local tabunangs (imperial sons-in-law) of the taijis emerged in all the former Dayan Khan's domains. The khagan and the jinong had titular authority over the three right wing tumens.
Darayisung Gödeng Khan (r. 1547–1557) had to grant titles of khans to his cousins
Altan, ruling the Tumed, and Bayaskhul, ruling the Kharchin. Under
Tümen Jasagtu Khan (r. 1558–92), the realm was unified again with the aid of Altan Khan,
Abtai Sain Khan, and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji of Ordos. Jasagtu defeated the Uriankhai and Daghur Mongols and subjugated the
Jurchens to the east. Abtai and Sechen brought many of the Oirat tribes under their domination. Altan conquered large parts of
Qinghai and left one of his sons in charge there. Jasagtu also tried to unify the Mongols under a new code of law, written in the old Mongol script derived from the
Uyghur script. A series of smallpox epidemics and lack of trade forced the Mongols to repeatedly plunder the districts of China. In 1571 the Ming opened trade with the three Right Wing Tumens. By the end of the 16th century, the Uriankhai Three Guards had lost their existence as a distinct group. Their Fuyu was absorbed by the Khorchin after they had moved to the
Nonni River. Two other, Doyin and Tai'nin, were absorbed by the Five Khalkhas.
Conversion to Buddhism Although Yuan emperors had previously adopted
Buddhism, most Mongols ignored it and remained
shamanist in their belief. From 1575, a large-scale conversion to
Tibetan Buddhism in the Right Wing Tumens occurred. Jasagtu appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of the
Karmapa order and agreed that Buddhism would henceforth become the state religion of Mongolia. In 1577, Altan and Sechen received the
3rd Dalai Lama, which started the conversion of Tumed and Ordos Mongols to Buddhism. Soon after the Oirats also adopted Buddhism. Numerous Tibetan lamas entered Mongolia to proselytize.
Fall (1600–1635) (White Castle) was built in 1601. By the reign of
Ligdan Khan (r. 1604–1634), the Eastern Mongol tumens had ceased to function as a unified entity. Ligdan only controlled the Chahar tumen and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols no longer obeyed his authority. Ligdan built a new capital in Chahar land known as Chaghan Baishin (White House) and promoted the building of Buddhist monasteries, translation of Tibetan literature, and trade with the Ming dynasty. In 1616, the Jurchens rose to the forefront of East Asian powers under the reign of
Nurhaci. Although sharing many similar characteristics with the Mongols, the Jurchens were not nomads, but tribal people who had adopted Chinese agricultural practices. Nurhaci had ambitions to conquer the Ming dynasty and sought allies in the Khorchin Mongols, subjects of Ligdan. The princes of
Khorchin, Jarud, and southern Khalkha Mongols made a formal alliance with the Jurchens from 1612 to 1624. , 1619–1634 In response, Ligdan
waged war on the Mongol allies of the Jurchens in 1625. The Jurchen-Mongol army defeated Ligdan and forced him back. In the following year, Uuba Noyan of the Khorchin had his younger brother marry one of Nurhaci's daughters, cementing the alliance. Many of the Jurchens married Mongols. Ligdan appointed his own officials over the tumens and formed an elite military band to coerce opposition. In 1628, Ligdan defeated the Khorchins and Jurchen auxiliary at Zhaocheng but fled a large Jurchen punitive expedition. Only
Tsogt Taiji (1581–1637) supported the Great Khan whilst other nobles of Khalkha remained neutral and inactive. In 1632,
Hong Taiji of the Jurchens and his Mongol allies defeated the Chahars and captured Ligdan's family. Ligdan lost any authority he had over the non-Chahar tumens. Ligdan died on his way to Qinghai to punish the
Gelug order in 1634. His son,
Ejei Khan, surrendered to the
Qing dynasty and was said to give the
Imperial Seal of the Mongols to Qing emperor
Hong Taiji the next year (February 1635), ending the Kublaid descent ruled Northern Yuan. After Ligdan Khan's death in 1634, the Mongols formed four Khanates, from west to east: • The
Altan Khan of Khalkhas in the far west, founded by Sholoi Ubashi, great-grandson of Geresandza. • The Dzasagtu Khans, a khanate founded by Laikhor-khan, a cousin of the Altan Khan. • The Tushetu Khans at
Ulaanbaatar founded by Abatai, another grandson. This was the senior branch. • The Sechen Khans at the eastern end of modern Mongolia, were founded by Sholoi, a great-grandson. ==Aftermath==