Art is a central topic of aesthetics and the main subject of the philosophy of art. It encompasses diverse forms, including
painting,
sculpture,
music,
dance,
literature, and
theater. This field covers both artworks and the skills or activities involved in their creation. Artworks are artifacts or
performances typically created by humans. They differ in this respect from naturally occurring aesthetic objects, like landscapes and sunsets.
Definitions A central debate in the philosophy of art concerns the definition of art or how to
distinguish it from non-art. There are many theories, each offering a unique perspective on the nature of art. category. They explain that readymade objects like
Marcel Duchamp's
Fountain are considered art by reference to established conventions. Essentialist approaches argue that there is an
essence or a set of inherent features shared by all artworks and only by them. Another definition suggests that artworks are objects designed to evoke aesthetic experiences or pleasure. A related approach proposes that all artworks have certain aesthetic properties in common, such as beauty.
Aesthetic formalism argues that specific formal features, such as a "
significant form", are the hallmark of art. Artist-centered approaches see artistic activity as the essential aspect of artworks. One conception understands artworks as special vehicles through which artists express emotions and other
mental states.
Conventionalist definitions view art as a
socially constructed category. This means that it does not primarily depend on the inherent properties of objects, for example, what they represent or what forms they have. Instead, art is defined by social and cultural agreements, which are subject to change. A key motivation for this approach has been the emergence of modern art, which has challenged many earlier conceptions. Conventionalist definitions can explain, for instance, that even mundane
ready-made objects like
a urinal are considered art if conventions say so. Institutional theories argue that the conventions are set by social institutions of the
art world. Because of this social dependence, an object considered art in one
society may not be art in another society. Historical theories, another form of conventionalism, assert that the category of art depends on established traditions and historical contexts. They claim that an object becomes part of this category if it stands in the right relation to these traditions, for example, by being created in an artistic context and resembling other recognized artworks. There are also hybrid theories that combine elements from other theories. For instance, one approach holds that an object is an artwork if it either meets certain aesthetic standards or is conventionally regarded as art. The diversity of proposed definitions and the difficulties in reconciling them have led some philosophers to argue against the existence of precise criteria. Some conclude that a definition is strictly impossible. Others provide vague characterizations, suggesting that the domain of art is characterized by overlapping similarities, known as
family resemblance.
Ontology and categories The
ontology of art seeks to discern the fundamental
categories of being to which all artworks belong. One approach argues that artworks are
universalsgeneral or repeatable entities that can have several instances at the same time. For example, a novel can have many copies, a film can have many screenings, and a photo can have many prints. One version of this view distinguishes artworks as
types from their instances, which are considered tokens of this type. A different outlook rejects the idea that artworks are universals, arguing instead that they are
particulars or unique concrete entities. For them, if there are several instances, then the artwork is the collection or sum of all instances. According to this view,
Alfred Stieglitz's photograph
The Steerage is not a type underlying its prints but rather the collection or sum of all prints together. A similar discussion addresses whether artworks are
material objects, which exist independent of observers, or
intentional objects, which exist in the experience of observers. Pluralists argue that different types of artworks belong to distinct ontological categories. Contextualists accept this view and further propose that the ontological category depends on the context of discussion. Deflationism is skeptical about the fundamental existence of artworks in any form. It acknowledges that the term
art may be practically useful in everyday language but rejects that it refers to any fundamental entities of reality. Artworks are categorized in many ways. Some distinctions focus on the
medium used to express artistic ideas. For example, paintings typically use
paint, such as
oil or
acrylic paint, which is distributed on a surface, whereas dance involves bodily movements. Similarly, music is performed using instruments and voice to produce sounds, and literature relies on language. Hybrid forms like
opera and
film combine several of these elements. Artworks can also be classified by
art historic style, such as
impressionism and
surrealism, and by their intended purpose, like political and
religious art.
Meaning The meaning of an artwork is what is involved in understanding it or comprehending what it communicates, encompassing factors such as representation and expression. Certain aspects of meaning may be directly accessible; others require in-depth interpretation, for example, to grasp symbolic or
metaphorical elements. Understanding influences aesthetic experience, and for certain artworks, a comprehensive understanding may be required to fully appreciate them. One approach to the analysis of meaning is the distinction between
form and content. Content refers to what is presented, such as the depicted topic, expressed ideas, and conceptual messages. Form refers to how the content is presented, such as medium, technique, composition, and
style. Form encompasses modes of presentation in different art forms, like color and spatial arrangement in painting,
harmony and
rhythm in music, and
narrative voice and plot structure in literature.
Representation and expression and
existential dread in
Edvard Munch's 1893 painting
The Scream.
Representation is a depiction of real or imagined entities. For example, a
portrait painting represents a person, and a
fantasy novel represents an imaginary chain of events. Similarity is a crucial element in many forms of artistic representation, meaning that the artwork resembles the depicted entity. Representation can also happen through other means, such as conventional
symbols and established codes. It is particularly prevalent in certain art forms and styles, such as
classical art and
realism. Since
antiquity, representation has been a key concept in
theories of art, such as Plato's idea of defining art as imitation. However, it is controversial whether representation plays a central role in all art forms, including music and
abstract modern art. Expression is the conveyance of psychological states, such as
emotions,
moods, and attitudes. For example, a painter may depict a barren landscape in muted colors to express
sadness, and a musician might use a fast tempo and upbeat melody to convey excitement. The expressed mental states often align with the artist's personal experience. However, this is not necessarily the case, and artists may explore psychological states they observed in others or entirely fictional experiences. An artwork can express a mental state like sadness by evoking it in the experience of the audience. Alternatively, the expression can also happen if observers recognize the presence of sadness in the artwork even if they do not personally feel it. Expression theories consider expression a core feature of artworks. They characterize artworks as expressions of the artist's mind, focusing on
creativity and
originality in the manifestation of aesthetic experiences.
Interpretation and criticism 's 1656 painting
Las Meninas. The terms
interpretation and
criticism are sometimes used interchangeably. However, criticism is typically associated with more components, like a general description of the criticized artwork and a classification of style and
genre. Criticism also explains the art-historical background and evaluates positive and negative qualities. Critics sometimes propose conflicting interpretations of the same artwork. According to critical monism, there is only one comprehensive correct interpretation, implying that conflicting interpretations cannot both be correct. Critical pluralism, by contrast, asserts that there can be different but equally valid interpretations and that it is not always possible to determine which of two conflicting interpretations is superior. A similar debate addresses whether interpretations can be true or false in an objective sense. Several frameworks of interpretation have been proposed. According to
intentionalism, the meaning of an artwork is determined by the
author's intenttheir reasons and motives that led to the creation of the artwork. This typically involves analyzing the ideas the artist aimed to express but can also include a
biographical analysis to learn about psychological and social circumstances in the artist's life. Intentionalism is a controversial theory, termed the
intentional fallacy by its critics. Some objections point to cases where the author's intention cannot be known, where the author cannot be identified, or where no traditional author exists, as in artworks created by
artificial intelligence. In these cases, meaning would be inaccessible or non-existent. Other objections assert that an artist may fail to accurately express their intention or may manifest unintended aesthetic features, suggesting that an artwork can contain both less and more than the artist intended. An alternative to intentionalism argues that meaning is determined by artistic, stylistic, linguistic, and other cultural
conventions. For example, linguistic conventions determine the literal meanings of words and thereby influence the overall meaning of a poem. Another framework holds that meaning is shaped by how the audience, rather than the author, interprets or would interpret the intention underlying the work. Artistic formalism proposes a different approach by focusing interpretation exclusively on formal or perceptual features of artworks. Aestheticism and instrumentalism are theories about the value of art. Aestheticism asserts that the primary value of art lies in its intrinsic aesthetic merits, independent of any external purposes. This idea of the autonomy of art is expressed in the slogan "
art for art's sake". Strong forms of aestheticism not only disregard external purposes but see them as detrimental influences that undermine artistic integrity. Instrumentalism, by contrast, explains the value of art by the effects it has on other domains. It understands art as a means to things such as
moral education,
spiritual growth,
therapeutic benefits, and
social cohesion.
The individual arts The individual arts are practices or disciplines in the domain of art. They encompass a wide range of fields, including traditionally established forms such as painting, music, and literature, as well as newer types like
video games. One classification divides them into
visual arts,
literary arts, and
performance arts. The boundaries between these categories are not always clear, and alternative classifications have been proposed.
Painting is a visual art in which a painter applies colors to a surface. It allows for a diverse range of motives and styles, and is often considered a paradigm form of art. The representation of real entities plays a central role in many forms of painting, ranging from landscapes and people to historic events. This process involves artistic choices that go beyond simple replication, such as guiding the viewer's attention to specific aspects or highlighting important but easily overlooked features. The issue of representation is also crucial in
photography, a visual art shaped by technological developments in
camera design and
editing processes. A key topic in the philosophy of photography concerns its mechanical manner of authentically representing real objects, frequently drawing parallels and distinctions with painting. The status of photographs as true artworks is disputed, with critics arguing that the mechanical nature of capturing images lacks the necessary artistic creativity.
Music is a performance art in which sounds are combined to create aesthetic patterns, relying on aspects such as
melody and rhythm. Unlike painting and photography, it is typically less associated with objective representation and more closely linked to the expression of emotions. A key discussion in the
philosophy of music concerns the
definition of music or the criteria under which a combination of sounds qualifies as music. Proposals range from objective criteria, such as the patterns of how sounds are organized, to subjective criteria, focusing on audience experience and interpretation.
Dance is another performance art in which dancers create aesthetic patterns through a series of bodily movements, often following a
choreography. It is typically accompanied by music and shares with music an emphasis on expressive features.
Architecture is the art or craft of designing and building, encompassing a wide range of structures from
monuments and
cathedrals to
skyscrapers and residential homes. It typically combines aesthetic with functional goals, seeking to create buildings that are both visually appealing and practically useful. This dual nature is a central topic of the
philosophy of architecture, with one theory suggesting that mere buildings can be distinguished from artistic architecture by the presence of
decorative elements. Literature has language as its primary medium. In its widest sense, literature encompasses any written document. However, the term is typically used in a narrower sense in aesthetics for forms of writing that belong to the
high arts, such as
poems,
novels, and
drama. Literature as an art is often characterized by its deliberate, elaborate, and organized use of language, but there is no universally accepted demarcation between artistic literature and other forms of writing. Poetry is a distinct form of literature often written in
verses composed of several lines that may follow specific patterns, such as
meter and
rhyme. Many poems are characterized by an economical use of language that seeks to evoke specific experiences while being difficult to
paraphrase.
Theater is a performance art that combines elements from other art forms. It typically includes a carefully prepared set or stage where actors perform, usually incorporating storytelling and sound design to create immersive experiences. Theater is performed before a live audience, which can create a sense of immediacy that is less prevalent in related art forms, such as film.
Film also integrates aspects from several artistic disciplines but relies more heavily on technological means of recording and editing. Films can involve actors but may also include
animated characters or
document real-life events. They are normally the result of collaborative efforts of many people, which complicates the identification of a singular author in the traditional sense.
Video games are a more recent form of art. Like theater and film, they usually blend visual, auditory, and narrative elements. They typically stand out through their emphasis on player interaction, allowing active exploration of and engagement with the
game world. The status of films and video games as serious forms of art is disputed. Proponents tend to emphasize their aesthetic qualities; critics often point to their association with
mass production and
popular culture as counterarguments. For video games, a related debate centers on the elements of competition and winning, questioning whether these elements run counter to the spirit of art. == In various fields ==