Background and Establishment The Qarmatians began to weaken after the death of their military leader
Al-Hasan al-A'sam in
977 (367 AH). The intervention of the
Abbasids and the
Fatimids in internal affairs led to the disintegration of the Qarmatian state. This weakness encouraged many Arab tribes to revolt against Qarmatian influence in
Oman, southern Iraq, and Bahrain. These local tribal rebellions motivated some tribal chiefs, most notably
Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni, to establish their own states in
Al-Ahsa. On the other side of Al-Ahsa, the Islamic East was in political disarray, particularly after the
Buyids seized power in
Baghdad from the Abbasids. However, this situation quickly changed with the emergence of the
Seljuks on the eastern stage. Their influence extended to
Transoxiana,
Khorasan,
Tabaristan, and
Gorgan. The Buyids' control over Baghdad led to the Seljuk Sultan
Tughril Beg entering Baghdad in 1055 (447 AH) and overthrowing the Buyids. Local tribes had attempted to overthrow Qarmatian rule before the rise of Abdullah ibn Ali Al Uyuni. These tribes received military assistance from the Seljuks in Baghdad. Among them were the Banu al-Zajjaj, who, led by
Abu al-Bahlul al-Awwam, established an
emirate loyal to the Abbasid Caliphate on
Awal Island. Al-Awwam had requested permission from the Qarmatians to build a mosque in Awal for 3,000 dinars. The Qarmatians agreed, but on the first Friday after its completion, Al-Awwam and his brother
Muslim declared their rebellion and renounced allegiance to the Qarmatians. Not far from Awal, the
Banu Ayash emerged in Qatif under the leadership of
Yahya ibn Ayash. Yahya aspired to control all of Al-Ahsa and began planning to annex Awal, but he died before achieving his goal. He entrusted this task to his son
Zakariya, who indeed succeeded in killing Al-Awwam, defeating his army, and incorporating Awal into his emirate. After the fall of Qarmatian influence in Awal and Qatif, only the city of
Al-Ahsa remained, where they fortified themselves until their eventual downfall. Abdullah ibn Ali Al Uyuni appeared in Al-Ahsa amidst the deteriorating conditions of the region and sought to rid it of the Qarmatians, having witnessed their weakened state. Abdullah relied entirely on his family and cousins from the
Banu Abd al-Qays tribe, numbering approximately four hundred men. With this force, he began fighting the Qarmatians, gaining the support of the local population who resented Qarmatian rule. Abdullah laid siege to Al-Ahsa, a siege that lasted for nearly seven years. Despite financial aid from the Uyunid family, Abdullah found it difficult to eliminate Qarmatian influence, especially since opposing tribes did not join his military campaigns. Thus, Abdullah had no choice but to seek external assistance. In 1073 (465 AH) , he appealed to the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, considering them a party harmed by Qarmatian attacks. The Abbasids and the de facto Seljuk Turkish rulers harbored animosity towards the Qarmatians, particularly the Seljuk Sultan
Malik-Shah, who was known for his dislike of Ismaili Shi'ites. The Abbasid Caliphate saw Abdullah al-Uyuni's offer as a significant opportunity to restore Al-Ahsa to Abbasid rule. In response to Abdullah al-Uyuni's request, the Seljuk Sultan dispatched a force of seven thousand men under the command of
Artuk Bey in 1076 (469 AH). Aksuk Salar's army marched from Iraq to Al-Ahsa. En route to meet Abdullah al-Uyuni, they occupied
Qatif and expelled its ruler, Ibn Ayash, to Awal Island. They then proceeded to Al-Ahsa and joined Abdullah al-Uyuni's army in besieging the Qarmatians. During the siege of Al-Ahsa, Artuk Bey and his soldiers plundered the surrounding farms, attacked local tribes, and seized their wealth, aiming to weaken the Qarmatians economically. The Qarmatians sought a month-long truce from Artuk Bey in exchange for money, offering thirteen men as hostages. Artuk Bey accepted, and the Qarmatians went out to gather food and supplies from their hidden caches. After collecting enough provisions, they returned to Al-Ahsa and renounced the truce with the Seljuk commander and his ally Abdullah al-Uyuni. Abdullah and the Seljuks then resumed a prolonged siege, during which the hostages were killed. With the onset of summer, which the Seljuks could not endure, Artuk Bey and his army withdrew from Al-Ahsa, leaving his brother, Al-Baqqush, with a small force to assist Abdullah al-Uyuni. Abdullah al-Uyuni prevented the Seljuks from entering the Qarmatian palace, fearing their interference in governance and their appropriation of the palace's wealth, which was supposed to belong to the Abbasid state. He sought to solidify his state's foundations and, to do so, needed to eliminate the Seljuks and Qarmatian supporters who posed a threat to his rule. The Banu Amir fought Abdullah al-Uyuni after he refused their demand for the
tributes they had received from the Qarmatians in exchange for their support and cessation of hostilities. Al-Uyuni defeated then moved north to a site between Qasr al-Khandaq and Bab al-Asfar to confront the Qarmatians, who had rebelled against his rule. The two sides clashed in the
Battle of Bab al-Asfar in
1077 (470 AH), and Al-Uyuni emerged victorious, capturing a large number of them and expelling the rest to Oman due to their frequent treachery and broken covenants. The relationship between Abdullah al-Uyuni and the Seljuk commander in Al-Ahsa, Al-Baqqush, worsened due to Al-Baqqush's ambition to increase Seljuk influence in Al-Ahsa and Abdullah al-Uyuni's adoption of the Fatimid doctrine to spread his
Alawite call. This led to escalating problems between the two commanders, culminating in Abdullah al-Uyuni killing Al-Baqqush. The Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Sultanate quickly prepared an army led by Rukn al-Din upon hearing of Al-Baqqush's death. Rukn al-Din's army reached Al-Ahsa and besieged it for approximately a year until the Seljuk soldiers grew weary. Abdullah al-Uyuni then confronted and defeated them, forcing their retreat from Al-Ahsa. The internal situation of the Banu Ayash in Qatif and Awal was unstable due to the animosity between Al-Hasan ibn Yahya Al Ayash, the ruler of Awal, and his brother
Zakariya, the ruler of Qatif. Zakariya aspired to overthrow his brother's rule in Awal and then advance to Al-Ahsa to incorporate it into his domain. He resented his brother Al-Hasan's attempts to strengthen ties with the Uyunids and, on the advice of his vizier
Al-Akroot, plotted to kill his brother. Zakariya indeed killed his brother, expanding his influence in Awal. He then prepared an army to march on Al-Ahsa, reaching a village called Nazira, where he began plundering its farms and surrounding villages. News of the plundering reached Abdullah al-Uyuni, who mobilized an army from his family and cousins from the Banu Abd al-Qays and marched towards Nazira. A battle ensued between the two parties, resulting in Zakariya's defeat and retreat to Qatif. Abdullah pursued Zakariya's forces to Qatif and managed to seize it. Zakariya then fled to Awal, so Abdullah dispatched an army and ships under the command of his son
Al-Fadl to Awal Island. His army met Zakariya's army, and Al-Fadl was victorious, forcing Zakariya to flee to
Uqair, where he encountered Abdullah ibn Ali's army. Abdullah managed to kill Zakariya in
1077 (470 AH), thereby unifying most of Al-Ahsa under his rule. He appointed his son Al-Fadl as emir of Qatif, and his son
Ali over
Awal Island, making
Al-Ahsa the capital of the country. Although Abdullah al-Uyuni unified Al-Ahsa under his banner, he faced external interference from the Seljuks. The Seljuk Sultan
Malik-Shah had not forgotten Al-Baqqush's murder by Abdullah al-Uyuni and sought revenge and the overthrow of his rule. He ordered
Kerman ibn Qarud Beg, the ruler of
Kerman, to prepare a military campaign against Al-Ahsa. Kerman carried out the order, heading to Al-Ahsa to bring it under Seljuk influence in 1081 CE (474 AH). Upon the Seljuk army's arrival, Abdullah al-Uyuni realized he could not confront such a large force with his smaller army. Therefore, he demonstrated his loyalty and submission to the Seljuk Sultanate and the Abbasid Caliphate to protect his and the Uyunids' possessions. Abdullah sought to eliminate Seljuk influence around Al-Ahsa and thus encouraged the Seljuk princes to invade
Oman. The Seljuk princes were convinced, especially after Al-Uyuni's display of loyalty, allowing Al-Uyuni to secure his dominion from the Seljuks.
Stability , which the Uyunids adopted as the capital during the reign of
Muhammad ibn al-Fadl. After the stabilization of conditions, Abdullah al-Uyuni began to organize administrative affairs. He appointed his sons over Qatif and Awal, and Sultan ibn Dawud over the northern areas between
Basra and Al-Ahsa. These regional emirs did not possess absolute authority and reported back to Abdullah al-Uyuni. He also stabilized the country's economic situation, which led to secure trade routes for merchants and
pilgrims, free from Bedouin attacks. Furthermore, he regulated religious affairs by removing Qarmatian beliefs, building mosques, and establishing religious schools with a
Seljuk architectural style that adhered to Shi'ite principles. Abdullah successfully improved his relationship with the Abbasid Caliphate, to whom he pledged allegiance, and sermons in mosques were delivered in the name of the Abbasid Caliph. Consequently, both the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Sultanate recognized Emir Abdullah al-Uyuni as the ruler of Al-Ahsa.
Al-Fadl ruled Al-Ahsa after his father, and there are many accounts regarding his reign. Some suggest he was only the ruler of Qatif and Awal during his father's time and did not rule the entire country, which is supported by historian Abdulrahman Al-Mudairees's opinion on the succession of Muhammad ibn al-Fadl. Others believe he ruled the entire country after his father's death, an opinion shared by researcher Abdulrahman Al-Mulla. The last opinion states that he was appointed ruler by his father when his father felt unable to manage affairs, an view supported by researcher Muhammad Mahmoud Khalil. Al-Fadl's rule was characterized by the protection of the land and the vulnerable, and he governed with firmness and strength. He revitalized the country's economic life by protecting merchants' goods from highway robbers, which encouraged people to engage in agriculture and trade. One day, Al-Fadl settled on
Tarout Island and was
assassinated there by one of his servants in
1126 (520 AH).
Muhammad ibn al-Fadl assumed rule after his father's death and relocated the capital from Al-Ahsa to Qatif. He removed his uncles,
Al-Hasan and
Ali, from governing Awal and Al-Ahsa, appointing
Shukr ibn Ali over Al-Ahsa and
Ghurair ibn al-Fadl over Awal. This angered his uncles, who awaited an opportune moment to eliminate Muhammad. To achieve this, they incited the Banu Amir and their leader Ghufayla ibn Shabana to fight Muhammad ibn al-Fadl in Qatif. Ghufayla and his forces marched towards Qatif, and the Uyunid army, led by Muhammad ibn al-Fadl, moved towards Ghufayla's camp. This resulted in the defeat of the Uyunid army and Muhammad's retreat to Qatif. Muhammad ibn al-Fadl suspected his uncles, Al-Hasan and Ali, played a role in this conflict, especially since Ghufayla and his army headed towards Al-Ahsa after the battle; and they were welcomed by Emir Shukr, Al-Hasan, and Ali. Consequently, Muhammad ibn al-Fadl accused his uncles of conspiring against him with Ghufayla and prepared an army to confront them in Al-Ahsa in
1143 (538 AH). His uncles met him, and a battle ensued between the two sides, ending with the death of Emir Muhammad ibn al-Fadl and his brother Ja'far. Despite these conflicts during Muhammad ibn al-Fadl's reign, his era was distinguished by literary and poetic gatherings, and the emir was fond of poetry and poets, generously honoring those who visited him from literary circles.
Expansion Under Muhammad b. Ahmad b. Abu'l-Hussin b. Abu Sinan, the territory of the Uyunid Emirate extended from
Najd to the
Syrian desert. Because of the influence of the Uyunid Emirate,
Caliph al-Nasir li-Din Allah gave Muhammad b. Ahmad the authority to protect the pilgrimage route to
Mecca. However, Muhammad was later assassinated by a family member at the instigation of his cousin, Gharir b. Shukr b. Ali. From 587 to 605, H. Mohammed bin Abi Al-Hussain united Qatif and Al-Hasa.
Decline was assassinated, leading to a series of assassinations of members of the
Uyunid dynasty that continued until the reign of
Shukr ibn Mansur al-Uyuni. The assassination of Emir Muhammad ibn al-Fadl marked a dangerous turning point in the history of the Uyunid state, which fragmented into three separate entities. In Al-Ahsa, power rested with Emir
Ali ibn Abdullah al-Uyuni. Qatif was controlled by Muhammad's brother,
Ghurair ibn al-Fadl, while Awal Island was under the rule of
Al-Hasan ibn Abdullah al-Uyuni. Ghurair ibn al-Fadl attempted to repair Qatif's affairs after the damage sustained during Muhammad's conflicts with his uncles. He also prepared to avenge his brother Muhammad's death at the hands of their uncles. Ghurair marched his army to Al-Ahsa, where they encountered Ali's army near Al-Ahsa, at a location called Al-Sulaymat. Ghurair managed to inflict a defeat on Ali's army, forcing Ali's forces to retreat and fortify themselves in Al-Ahsa. Ghurair and his army, meanwhile, plundered Al-Ahsa's farms before retreating to Qatif after the battle. It appears Ghurair was content with this victory, having achieved his desire for revenge for his brother's murder. Ghurair's rule did not last long; he died in
1144 (539 AH), or was possibly killed by one of his nephew Muhammad's sons. The sources do not mention the name of the emir who succeeded him, but he also did not rule for long due to his young age and poor administration. The ruler of Awal, Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Uyuni, exploited this emir's weakness and Qatif's instability, leading him to seize Qatif. Thus, the rule of the Al-Fadl ibn Abdullah Al Uyuni family in Al-Ahsa ended, succeeded by the sons of Ali ibn Abdullah al-Uyuni in Al-Ahsa and the sons of Al-Hasan ibn Abdullah al-Uyuni in Qatif and Awal.
Qatif In
1144 after Al-Hasan seized Qatif, the ruler of
Qays Island, Bakirzarz ibn Sa'd, attacked Awal with a large army. This attack was driven by economic ambitions and an exploitation of the political turmoil within the Uyunid family. Al-Hasan dispatched an army from Qatif, led by his nephew
Shukr ibn Ali, to Awal to confront Bakirzarz. The two armies met on
Sitrah Island, where Shukr emerged victorious, and Bakirzarz and his forces retreated to Qays Island. Al-Hasan made Qatif his capital, and although Al-Ahsa remained under his brother Ali's rule, sources indicate that Ali and his sons nominally pledged allegiance to Al-Hasan. Thus, most of Al-Ahsa region came under Al-Hasan's control. Qatif flourished under his reign in terms of livelihood, politics, and trade, becoming a magnet for the inhabitants of the Al-Ahsa region. Indeed, most of the Uyunid state officials and Al-Hasan's household left Al-Ahsa and moved to Qatif. Al-Hasan died in 1154 (549 AH), leaving behind a political vacuum. His sons were young and none could assume leadership, which facilitated the ambitions of those seeking power.
Ghurair ibn Mansour al-Uyuni was one of these ambitious individuals who seized the opportunity to take power. During his reign, Awal was attacked by the ruler of Qays in
1154 (549 AH), who occupied it for a short period, plundered it, and then withdrew. Ghurair ruled for seven years until he was killed by his cousin
Hajras ibn Muhammad al-Uyuni in
1160 (556 AH). Hajras seized power but did not rule for long, dying in 1161 CE (557 AH). Sources mention that his rule was weak, and the country was unstable during his time.
Shukr ibn al-Hasan al-Uyuni assumed power after Hajras's death. Shukr attempted to stabilize his state, aided by his brothers. During his reign, the ruler of Qays tried to attack Awal but failed. After Shukr's death in 1179 (575 AH),
Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Uyuni took over. Ali's rule was brief, as he was killed by his brother
Al-Zayr ibn al-Hasan al-Uyuni in Subsib Mosque in 1179. After Ali's death, infighting and assassinations among the Uyunid family members in Qatif and Awal for power intensified. These assassinations led to the people of Qatif's dissatisfaction with the Uyunid family, as they grew tired of their conflicts. Therefore, they appointed an emir from outside the Uyunid family, but he did not remain in power for long, resigning and leaving it to another member of the Uyunid family.
Al-Ahsa This tumultuous period in the Uyunid state's history did not affect Al-Ahsa as it did Qatif. The Uyunid emirs in Al-Ahsa were more stable than those in Qatif and Awal. Al-Ahsa suffered an economic crisis during the reign of
Shukr ibn Ali Al Uyuni due to the plundering of its farms and crops by Ghurair ibn al-Fadl's soldiers. To resolve this crisis, Shukr promptly opened the state treasury and distributed grains and seeds to the people. Sources mention his excessive generosity, even providing grains for birds so they would not starve due to scarcity. Emir Shukr was subject to the authority of his uncle Al-Hasan ibn Abdullah in Qatif, as evidenced by Shukr's participation in one of the Qays ruler's battles in Awal, alongside his uncle Al-Hasan and under his command. After Shukr's death in 1160 (556 AH),
Muhammad ibn Mansur al-Uyuni assumed rule of Al-Ahsa. He was described as strong, firm, and decisive, and his reign was known for security and stability in Al-Ahsa, where he halted Bedouin incursions against the city's inhabitants. Ibn al-Muqarrab's diwan recounts his strength, stating that the enemies of the Uyunid family in Al-Ahsa gathered with their sheikh, Shabana ibn Ghufayla, inciting him to fight Muhammad ibn Mansur. However, he refused due to the Uyunid's strength and urged them to be patient until Muhammad's death. Because of this incident, the tribes were unable to attack Al-Ahsa during Muhammad ibn Mansur al-Uyuni's reign. He died in
1184 (580 AH). ==Geography==