The culture of Pre-Columbian America is usually defined by the concept of the culture area, namely a region where shared cultural traits occur. The northwest culture area, for example, shared common traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, and large villages or towns, and a hierarchical social structure. Ethnographers generally
classify the Indigenous peoples of North America into ten cultural areas based on region. Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes. Early scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by
clans. European colonization had a major impact on Native American cultures through what is known as the
Columbian exchange, which was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the
Americas and Eurasia (the
Old World) in the 15th and 16th centuries, following
Christopher Columbus's
1492 voyage. They exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages. The Columbian exchange generally had a destructive impact on Native American cultures through disease, and a 'clash of cultures', whereby European values of private land ownership, the family, and division of labor, led to conflict, appropriation of traditional communal lands and changed how Indigenous tribes practiced slavery. The Great Plains tribes were still hunting bison when they first encountered Europeans. Reintroduction of the horse changed the way in which they hunted large game. Horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth by many tribes.
Ethno-linguistic classification The
Na-Dené,
Algic, and
Uto-Aztecan language families are the largest by number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (2 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered; Na-Dené comes second with approximately 200,000 speakers, and Algic third with about 180,000 speakers. Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic spans from northeast Canada across much of the continent down to northeast Mexico with two outliers in
California (
Yurok and
Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and west Canada through
Washington,
Oregon, and California to the
U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico. Several families consist of only 2 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-) family proposals,
Penutian and
Hokan have potential. Words used in English have been
derived from Native American languages.
Language education Cherokee language immersion school student writing in the
Cherokee syllabary To counteract a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where an Indigenous American language is the medium of instruction. The
Cherokee Nation initiated a 10-year language preservation plan that involved raising new fluent speakers of the
Cherokee language from childhood up through school immersion programs, as well as community effort to continue to use the language at home. This plan was part of a goal that, in 50 years, will result in 80% or more of the Cherokee being fluent. Formed in 2006, the Kituwah Preservation & Education Program (KPEP) on the
Qualla Boundary focuses on language immersion programs for children from birth to
fifth grade, developing cultural resources for the public and community language programs to foster the Cherokee language among adults. There is a Cherokee language immersion school in
Tahlequah, Oklahoma, that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. Because Oklahoma's official language is English, Cherokee immersion students are hindered when taking state-mandated tests because they can have little competence in English. The Department of Education of Oklahoma said that in 2012 state tests: 11% of the school's sixth-graders showed proficiency in math, and 25% in reading; 31% of the seventh-graders showed proficiency in math, and 87% in reading; 50% of eighth-graders showed proficiency in math, and 78% in reading. Alaskan Natives prepared and preserved dried and smoked meat and fish. , made into an
Indian taco Pacific Northwest tribes crafted seafaring
dugout canoes long for fishing. In the
Eastern Woodlands, early peoples independently invented agricultural and by 1800 BCE developed the crops of the
Eastern Agricultural Complex, which include squash (
Cucurbita pepo ssp. ovifera), sunflower (
Helianthus annuus var. macrocarpus), goosefoot (
Chenopodium berlandieri), and marsh elder (
Iva annua var. macrocarpa). The
Sonoran Desert region including parts of
Arizona and
California, part of a region known as
Aridoamerica, relied on the
tepary bean as a staple crop. This and other desert crops,
mesquite bead pods,
tunas (
prickly pear fruit), cholla buds,
saguaro cactus fruit, and
acorns are actively promoted by Tohono O'odham Community Action. In the Southwest, some communities developed
irrigation techniques while others, such as the
Hopi dry-farmed. They filled storehouses with grain as protection against the area's frequent
droughts. grown by Native Americans
Maize or
corn, first cultivated in what is now Mexico, was traded north into Aridoamerica and
Oasisamerica,
southwest. Maize cultivation spread throughout the
Great Plains and
Eastern Woodlands by 200 CE. Native farmers practiced
polycropping maize, beans, and squash; these crops are known as the
Three Sisters. The beans would replace the
nitrogen, which the maize leached from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing. The deficiencies of a diet dependent on maize were mitigated by the practice of converting maize kernels into
hominy in a process called
Nixtamalization. The
agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region. In the Southwest area, men prepared the soil with
hoes. The women were in charge of
planting,
weeding, and
harvesting. In most other regions, the women were in charge of most agriculture, including clearing the land, which was an immense chore, as they rotated fields. Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Native Americans cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in
New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in
Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans. Native Americans and a whale,
The King of the Seas in the Hands of the Makahs, 1910 photograph by
Asahel Curtis Early farmers commonly used tools such as the
hoe,
maul, and
dibber. The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of
wood and
stone. When the settlers brought
iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and
hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul to grind the corn into a mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as cornbread.
Religion '', painted in 1840 by
John Gadsby Chapman Native American religious practices and beliefs, differ widely across tribes. These
spiritualities, practices, beliefs, may accompany adherence to another faith or can represent a person's primary religious, faith, spiritual or philosophical identity. Much Native American spirituality exists in a tribal-cultural continuum, so cannot be easily separated from tribal identity itself. Some tribes include the use of sacred leaves and herbs such as tobacco,
sweetgrass or
sage. Many Plains tribes have
sweatlodge ceremonies, though the specifics vary among tribes. Fasting, singing, prayer, and
drumming are common. , the patron of
ecologists,
exiles, and orphans, was canonized by the
Catholic Church The
Midewiwin Lodge is a medicine society inspired by the oral history and prophesies of the
Ojibwa (Chippewa) and related tribes. Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the
Native American Church. It is a
syncretistic church incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from different tribes as well as symbolic elements from
Christianity. Its main rite is the
peyote ceremony. Prior to 1890, traditional religious beliefs included
Wakan Tanka. In the American Southwest, especially
New Mexico, a syncretism between the Catholicism brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the
Pueblo people are regularly part of
Masses at
Santa Fe's
Saint Francis Cathedral. Native American-Catholic syncretism is also found elsewhere in the US. Some Native American tribes who practice Christianity, including the
Lumbee, organized denominations, such as the
Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church. The
eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry, enrolled in a federally recognized tribe, are legally authorized to obtain
eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans.
Gender roles was the first Native American woman to become a
physician in the United States. Gender roles are differentiated in many Native American tribes. Many Natives have retained traditional expectations of sexuality and gender and continue to do so in contemporary life despite ongoing colonial pressures. Whether a particular tribe is predominantly
matrilineal or
patrilineal, often both sexes have some degree of decision-making power within the tribe. Many Nations, such as the
Haudenosaunee Five Nations and the Southeast Muskogean tribes, have matrilineal or
Clan Mother systems, in which property and hereditary leadership are controlled by and passed through the maternal lines. In these Nations, the children are considered to belong to the mother's clan. In
Cherokee culture, women own the family property. When traditional young women marry, their husbands may join them in their mother's household. Matrilineal structures enable young women to have assistance in childbirth and rearing and protect them in case of conflicts between the couple. If a couple separates or the man dies, the woman has her family to assist her. In matrilineal cultures the mother's brothers are usually the leading male figures in her children's lives; fathers have no standing in their wife and children's clan, as they still belong to their mother's clan. Hereditary clan chief positions pass through the mother's line and chiefs have historically been selected on the recommendations of women elders, who could also disapprove of a chief. In patriarchal tribes, gender roles tend to be rigid. Men have historically hunted, traded and made war while women have primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families (and future of the tribe). Women usually gather and cultivate plants, use plants and herbs to treat illnesses, care for the young and the elderly, make clothing and instruments, and process and cure meat and skins from the game. Some mothers use
cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling. In matriarchal and egalitarian nations, the gender roles are usually not so clear-cut and even less so in the modern era. Though fighting in war has mostly been left to the boys and men, occasionally women have fought, in battles and defense of the home, especially if the tribe was severely threatened.
Modern education 90% of Native American school-aged children attend public schools operated by school districts. Tribally-operated schools under contracts/grants with the
Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) and direct BIE-operated schools take about 8% of Native American students, including students who live in very rural remote areas.
Sports , gold medalist at the 1912 Olympics, in the
pentathlon and
decathlon events Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports.
Jim Thorpe,
Lewis Tewanima,
Joe Hipp,
Notah Begay III,
Chris Wondolowski,
Jacoby Ellsbury,
Joba Chamberlain,
Kyle Lohse,
Sam Bradford,
Jack Brisco,
Tommy Morrison,
Billy Mills,
Angel Goodrich,
Shoni Schimmel, and
Kyrie Irving are well known professional athletes. and
Lakota tribe in a 19th-century
lithograph by
George Catlin Team sports Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as
lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than war, as a civil way to settle conflict. The
Choctaw called it
isitoboli ("Little Brother of War"); the
Onondaga name was ''dehuntshigwa'es'' ("men hit a rounded object"). There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern. The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) and prevent the opposing team from scoring. The game involves 20 or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions, or protective gear. The goals could be from around apart to about ; in lacrosse the field is .
Individual sports Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone-shaped disk about 1–2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a corridor so it could roll past the players at great speed. Players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.
U.S. Olympics crosses the finish line at the end of the 10,000-meter race at the
1964 Tokyo Olympics.
Jim Thorpe, a
Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-around athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President
Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw." In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe ran the 100-yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880 in 1:57, the mile in 4:35, the 120-yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and the 220-yard low hurdles in 24 seconds. He long jumped 23 ft 6 in and high-jumped 6 ft 5 in. In 2016,
Kyrie Irving (
Sioux) also helped Team USA win gold at the
2016 Summer Olympics. He became the 4th member of Team USA to capture the NBA championship and Olympic gold in the same year, joining
LeBron James,
Michael Jordan, and
Scottie Pippen.
Literature Native American literature, composed of
oral and written literature, has a long history. It is considered a series of literatures reflecting the varied traditions and histories of different tribes. Modern authors cover a range of genres and include
Tommy Orange,
Joy Harjo,
Louise Erdrich,
Stephen Graham Jones,
Rebecca Roanhorse,
Tommy Pico, and many more.
Music at the Seafair Indian Days
Pow-Wow,
Daybreak Star Cultural Center,
Seattle, Washington from
New Mexico Traditional Native American music is almost entirely
monophonic, but there are exceptions. It often includes
drums, rattles, or other percussion, but little other instrumentation.
Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles, as noted by
conquistador de Soto. The tuning of modern flutes is typically
pentatonic. Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music such as
Rita Coolidge,
Wayne Newton,
Gene Clark,
Blackfoot, and
Redbone. Some, such as
John Trudell, have used music to comment on life in Native America. Others such as
R. Carlos Nakai,
Joanne Shenandoah and
Robert "Tree" Cody integrate traditional sounds with modern, in instrumental recordings, whereas music by
Charles Littleleaf is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature. Recording companies offer an abundance of music by contemporary Native American performers young and old, ranging from
pow-wow drum music to rock-and-roll and rap. In the ballet dancing
Maria Tallchief was considered America's first major
prima ballerina, and the first of Native American descent to hold the rank. Along with her sister
Marjorie Tallchief both became star ballerinas. The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans is that of the
pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual
Gathering of Nations in
Albuquerque, New Mexico, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups. Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most Indigenous communities maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community.
Art The
Iroquois, living around the
Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called
wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and served as a medium of exchange and unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.
Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies.
Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated ancestral spirits. Pueblo people are noted for high-quality pottery, often with geometric designs and floral, animal and bird motifs. Carved stone and wood
fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized their textile arts. Turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were formalized pictorial arts.
Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating
sandpainting. For the Navajo, sand painting is not just a representational object, but a spiritual entity with a life of its own, which helped the patient at the center of the ceremony re-establish a connection with the life force. These sand creations were erased at the end of the healing ceremony. It has been estimated that the Native American arts and crafts industry brings in a billion USD in gross sales annually. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include
pottery,
paintings,
jewellery,
weavings,
sculpture,
basketry, and
carvings. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the
Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, which prohibits the representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist. Gail Sheffield and others claim this has had "the unintended consequence of sanctioning discrimination against Native Americans whose tribal affiliation was not officially recognized". Artists such as
Jeanne Rorex Bridges (
Echota Cherokee), who was not enrolled, ran the risk of fines or imprisonment if they sold their art while affirming their heritage. Notable Native American artists include
Franklin Gritts, a Cherokee artist who taught students from many tribes at Haskell Institute (now
Haskell Indian Nations University) in the 1940s, the
Golden Age of Native American painters. ==Interracial relations==