It is not yet possible to specify with any certainty when the great South Arabian Kingdoms appeared; estimates range (within the framework of the long chronology) from the 12th until the 8th century BCE.
Kingdom of Saba (12th century BCE – 275 CE) During Sabaean rule, trade and agriculture flourished generating much wealth and prosperity. The Sabaean kingdom was located in what is now the
'Asīr region in southwestern Saudi Arabia, and its capital, Ma'rib, is located near what is now Yemen's modern capital,
Sana'a. According to Arab tradition, the eldest son of
Noah,
Shem, founded the city of Sana’a, which is also called the city of Sam, or also called Azal city, which means the ancient city.
Sabaean hegemony (800 BCE – 400 BCE) At the time of the earliest historical sources originating in South Arabia the territory was under the rule of the Kingdom of
Saba', the centres of which were situated to the east of present-day Sana'a in
Ṣirwāḥ and
Ma'rib. The political map of South Arabia at that time consisted of several larger kingdoms, or rather tribal territories: Awsān, Qatabān and the Ḥaḑramawt; and on the other hand an uncertain number of smaller states, such as the city states of
Ḥaram and
Nashaq in
al-Jawf. Shortly after, Yitha'amar Watar I had united Qatabān and some areas in al-Jawf with Saba', the Kingdom reached the peak of its power under
Karib'il Watar I, who probably reigned some time around the first half of the 7th century BCE, and ruled all the region from
Najrān in the south of modern South Arabia right up to
Bāb al-Mandab, on the Red Sea. The formation of the Minaean Kingdom in the river oasis of al-Jawf, north-west of Saba' in the 6th century BCE, actually posed a danger for Sabaean hegemony, but Yitha'amar Bayyin II, who had completed the great reservoir dam of Ma'rib, succeeded in reconquering the northern part of South Arabia. Between the 8th and 4th centuries the state of Da'amot emerged, under Sabaean influence in Ethiopia, which survived until the beginning of the Christian era at the latest. The exact chronology of
Da'amot and to what extent it was politically independent of Saba' remains in any case uncertain. The success of the Kingdom was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including
frankincense and
myrrh. These were exported to the Mediterranean, India, and Abyssinia where they were greatly prized by many cultures, using camels on routes through Arabia, and to India by sea. Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern
Ethiopia, where the
South Arabian alphabet, religion and pantheon, and the South Arabian style of art and architecture were introduced. The Sabaeans created a sense of identity through their religion. They worshipped
El-Maqah and believed that they were his children. For centuries, the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the
Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait separating the Arabian Peninsula from the
Horn of Africa and the
Red Sea from the Indian Ocean. Agriculture in Yemen thrived during this time due to an advanced irrigation system which consisted of large water tunnels in mountains, and dams. The most impressive of these earthworks, known as the
Ma'rib Dam was built c. 700 BCE, provided irrigation for about 25,000 acres (101 km²) of land and stood for over a millennium, finally collapsing in 570 CE after centuries of neglect. The final destruction of the dam is noted in the Qur'an and the consequent failure of the irrigation system provoked the migration of up to 50,000 people. The Sabaean kingdom, with its capital at
Ma'rib where the remains of a large temple can still be seen, thrived for almost 14 centuries. This kingdom was the
Sheba described in the
Old Testament.
Kingdom of Ḥaḑramawt (8th century BCE – 300 CE) (ancient Nashqum). 6th–5th century BCE.
Louvre Museum. The first known inscriptions of Ḥaḑramawt are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an
Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BCE, in which the King of Ḥaḑramawtt, Yada'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies. When the Minaeans took control of the caravan routes in the 4th century BCE, however, Ḥaḑramawt became one of its confederates, probably because of commercial interests. It later became independent and was invaded by the growing kingdom of
Ḥimyar toward the end of the 1st century BCE, but it was able to repel the attack. Ḥaḑramawt annexed Qatabān in the second half of the 2nd century CE, reaching its greatest size. During this period, Ḥaḑramawt was continuously at war with Himyar and Saba', and the
Sabaean king Sha'irum Awtar was even able to take its capital, Shabwah, in 225. During this period the
Kingdom of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs. King
GDRT of Aksum acted by dispatching troops under his son, BYGT, sending them from the western coast to occupy
Thifar, the Ḥimyarite capital, as well as from the southern coast against Ḥaḑramawt as Sabaean allies. The kingdom of Ḥaḑramawt was eventually conquered by the Ḥimyarite king Shammar Yuhar'ish around 300 CE, unifying all of the south Arabic kingdoms.
Kingdom of Awsan (800 BCE – 500 BCE) The ancient Kingdom of Awsān in South Arabia with a capital at Ḥajar Yaḥirr in Wādī Markhah, to the south of the Wādī Bayḥān, is now marked by a
tell or artificial mound, which is locally named
Ḥajar Asfal in
Shabwah. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems to have been destroyed in the 7th century BCE by the king and
mukarrib of
Saba Karib'il Watar, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that attest to its significance for the Sabaeans. Between 700 and 680 BC, the
Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings and challenged the Sabaean supremacy in
South Arabia. Sabaean Mukarrib
Karib'il Watar I conquered Awsan, and expanded Sabaean rule and territory to include much of South Arabia. Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula. Instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes. featuring a musical scene, 1st century AD
Kingdom of Qatabān (4th century BCE – 200 CE) c. 75–50 BCE. Qatabān was one of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms which thrived in the
Bayḥān valley. Like the other Southern Arabian kingdoms it gained great wealth from the trade of frankincense and myrrh incense which were burned at altars. The capital of Qatabān was named
Timna and was located on the trade route which passed through the other kingdoms of Ḥaḑramawt, Saba' and Ma'īn. The chief deity of the Qatabānians was 'Amm, or "Uncle" and the people called themselves the "children of 'Amm".
Kingdom of Ma'in (8th century BCE – 100 BCE) During Minaean rule, the capital was at
Qarnāwu (now known as
Ma'in). Their other important city was Yathill (Sabaean yṯl :now known as
Barāqish). Other parts of modern Yemen include
Qatabā and the coastal string of watering stations known as the
Hadhramaut. Though Saba' dominated in the earlier period of South Arabian history, Minaic inscriptions are of the same time period as the first Sabaean inscriptions. They pre-date the appearance of the Minaeans themselves, and, hence, are called now more appropriately as "Madhābic", after the name of the Wadi they are found in, rather than "Minaic". The Minaean Kingdom was centered in northwestern Yemen, with most of its cities lying along the
Wādī Madhhāb. Minaic inscriptions have been found far afield of the Kingdom of Ma'in, as far away as
al-Ūlā in northwestern
Saudi Arabia and even on the island of
Delos and in
Egypt. It was the first of the South Arabian kingdoms to end, and the
Minaean language died around 100 CE.
Kingdom of Ḥimyar (2nd century BCE – 525 CE) , 1st century BCE, Yemen The Ḥimyarites eventually united Southwestern Arabia, controlling the Red Sea as well as the coasts of the Gulf of Aden. From their capital city, the Ḥimyarite kings launched successful military campaigns, and had stretched its domain at times as far east to the Persian Gulf and as far north as the Arabian Desert. During the 3rd century CE, the South Arabian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with one another.
GDRT of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba', and a Ḥimyarite text notes that Ḥaḑramawt and Qatabān were also all allied against the kingdom. As a result of this, the Kingdom of Aksum was able to capture the Ḥimyarite capital of
Ẓifār in the first quarter of the 3rd century. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha'ir Awtar of Saba' unexpectedly turned on Ḥadramawt, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Ḥimyar then allied with Saba' and invaded the newly taken Aksumite territories, retaking Ẓifār, which had been under the control of GDRT's son BYGT, and pushing Aksum back into the
Tihāmah. They established their capital at
Thifar (now just a small village in the
Ibb region) and gradually absorbed the Sabaean kingdom. They traded from the port of
Mawza'a on the Red Sea.
Dhū Nuwās, a Ḥimyarite king, changed the state religion to
Judaism in the beginning of the 6th century and began to massacre the Christians. Outraged,
Kaleb, the Christian King of
Aksum with the encouragement of the Byzantine Emperor
Justin I invaded and annexed Yemen. About fifty years later, Yemen fell to
Persia.
Kingdom of Aksum (520 – 570 CE) Around 517/8, a
Jewish king called
Yūsuf Asar Yathar (also known as Dhū Nuwās) usurped the kingship of Ḥimyar from
Ma'dikarib Ya'fur.
Zacharias Rhetor of
Mytilene (fl. late 6th century) says that Yūsuf became king because the previous king had died in winter, when the Aksumites could not cross the
Red Sea and appoint another king. The truth behind such a claim is put into doubt due to Ma'dikarib Ya'fur having a long title. Upon gaining power, Yusuf attacked the Aksumite garrison in
Zafar, the Himyarite capital, killing many and destroying the church there. The Christian King
Kaleb of Axum learned of Dhu Nuwas's persecutions of Christians and Aksumites, and, according to
Procopius, was further encouraged by his ally and fellow Christian
Justin I of Byzantium, who requested
Aksum's help to cut off
silk supplies as part of his economic war against the
Persians. Yusuf marched toward the port city of Mocha, killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000. Then he settled a camp in Bab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum. At the same time, he sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul, to
Najran. Sharahil had reinforcements from the Bedouins of the Kinda and
Madh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the Christian community in Najran by means of execution and
forced conversion to Judaism. Blady speculates that he was likely motivated by stories about Byzantine violence against Byzantine Jewish communities in his decision to begin his campaign of state violence against Christians existing within his territory. Christian sources portray Dhu Nuwas as a Jewish zealot, while Islamic traditions say that he marched around 20,000 Christians into trenches filled with flaming oil, burning them alive. Himyarite inscriptions attributed to Dhu Nuwas show great pride in killing 27,000, enslaving 20,500 Christians in
Ẓafār and
Najran and killing 570,000 beasts of burden belonging to them as a matter of imperial policy. It is reported that Byzantium Emperor
Justin I sent a letter to the Aksumite
King Kaleb, pressuring him to "...attack the abominable Hebrew."
Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of an ancient Sabaean palace in Marib to build a church on its ruins. Three churches were built in Najran. Kaleb sent a fleet across the Red Sea and was able to defeat Dhū Nuwās, who was killed in battle according to an inscription from Ḥusn al-Ghurāb, while later Arab tradition has him riding his horse into the sea. Kaleb installed a native Ḥimyarite viceroy,
Samu Yafa', who ruled from 525–27 until 531, when he was deposed by the Aksumite general (or soldier and former slave)
Abrahah with the support of disgruntled
Axumn soldiers. A contemporary inscription refers to Sumyafa' Ashwa' as "viceroy for the kings of Aksum. According to the later Arabic sources, Kaleb retaliated by sending a force of 3,000 men under a relative, but the troops defected and killed their leader, and a second attempt at reigning in the rebellious Abrahah also failed. Later Ethiopian sources state that Kaleb abdicated to live out his years in a monastery and sent his crown to be hung in the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre in
Jerusalem. While uncertain, it seems to be supported by the die-links between his coins and those of his successor,
Alla Amidas. An inscription of Sumyafa' Ashwa' also mentions two kings (
nagaśt) of Aksum, indicating that the two may have co-ruled for a while before Kaleb abdicated in favor of Alla Amidas. Procopius notes that Abrahah later submitted to Kaleb's successor, as supported by the former's inscription in 543 stating Aksum before the territories directly under his control. During his reign, Abrahah repaired the
Ma'rib Dam in 543, and received embassies from Persia and Byzantium, including a request to free some bishops who had been imprisoned at
Nisibis (according to
John of Ephesus's "Life of Simeon"). Abraha ruled until at least 547, sometime after which he was succeeded by his son, Aksum. Aksum (called "Yaksum" in Arabic sources) was perplexingly referred to as "of
Ma'afir" (
ḏū maʻāfir), the southwestern coast of Yemen, in Abrahah's Ma'rib dam inscription, and was succeeded by his brother, Masrūq. Aksumite control in Yemen ended in 570 with the invasion of the elder Sassanid general
Vahriz who, according to later legends, famously killed Masrūq with his well-aimed arrow. Later Arabic sources also say that
Abrahah constructed a great Church called "al-Qulays" at
Sana'a in order to divert pilgrimage from the
Ka'bah and have him die in the
Year of the Elephant (570) after returning from a failed attack on Mecca (though he is thought to have died before this time). The exact chronology of the early wars are uncertain, as a 525 inscription mentions the death of a King of Ḥimyar, which could refer either to the Ḥimyarite viceroy of Aksum, Sumyafa' Ashwa', or to Yusuf Asar Yathar. The later Arabic histories also mention a conflict between
Abrahah and another Aksumite general named Aryat occurring in 525 as leading to the rebellion.
Sassanid period (570–630 CE) Emperor
Khosrow I sent troops under the command of
Wahrez, who helped the semi-legendary
Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan to drive the
Kingdom of Aksum out of Yemen. South Arabia became a Persian dominion under a Yemenite vassal and thus came within the sphere of influence of the
Sasanian Empire. Later another army was sent to Yemen, and in 597/8 Southern Arabia became a province of the Sassanid Empire under a Persian
satrap. It was a Persian province by name but after the Persians assassinated Dhi Yazan, Yemen divided into a number of autonomous kingdoms. This development was a consequence of the expansionary policy pursued by the Sassanian king
Khosrow II (590–628), whose aim was to secure Persian border areas such as Yemen against
Roman and Byzantine incursions. Following the death of Khosrau II in 628, then the Persian governor in Southern Arabia,
Badhan, converted to Islam and Yemen followed the new religion. ==See also==