Antiquity in 400 CE Arakan has been recognized “as one among other Burmese kingdoms competing for the control of power in Lower Burma”. The cities of
Bago,
Bagan, and
Inwa were centers of political power in Burma proper. In contrast, independent Arakanese states were based in the capitals of
Dhanyawadi,
Vesali,
Laungyet, and
Mrauk-U. The ruins of these cities are located in northern Arakan in proximity to the borderland of Bengal. It is unclear who the earliest inhabitants were; some historians believe the earliest settlers included the Tibeto-Burman people
Mro tribe but there is a lack of evidence and no clear tradition of their origin or written records of their history. Arakanese traditional history holds that Arakan was inhabited by the
Rakhine since 3000 BCE, but there is no archaeological evidence to support the claim. According to British historian
Daniel George Edward Hall, who wrote extensively on the history of Burma, "The Burmese do not seem to have settled in Arakan until possibly as late as the tenth century AD. Hence earlier dynasties are thought to have been Indian, ruling over a population similar to that of Bengal. All the capitals known to history have been in the north near modern Akyab". Arakan came under strong Indic influence from the
Indian subcontinent, particularly the ancient kingdoms of the Ganges delta. Arakan was one of the first regions in Southeast Asia to adopt
Dharmic religions. It became one of the earliest
Indianized kingdoms in Southeast Asia.
Buddhist missionaries from the
Mauryan Empire traveled through Arakan to other parts of
Southeast Asia.
Paul Wheatley chronicled the "Indianization" of Arakan. According to
Pamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi". Gutman writes that “the maintenance of a state appropriate to kingship required the ministrations of increasing numbers of craftsmen and artisans, the most skilled of whom were often accommodated within the royal compound. It required the labour of a peasantry who contributed the surplus produce of their fields as a kind of tax in kind for the support of the court, and a band of armed retainers who acted as household guards, organised the peasantry as militia and enforced the authority of the ruler. Material defences – walls and moats protecting the palace and the city – were constructed and the city-state, the nagara, evolved. These transformations saw the tribal chieftain replaced by a divine king, shaman by brahmin priest, tribesman as cultivators by peasants, tribesmen as warriors by an army, and favoured the development of occupational specialisation. They were reflected in the conversion of the chief’s hut into a palace, the spirit house into a temple, the object of the spirit cult into the palladium of the state, and the boundary spirits which previously had protected the village into Indianized Lokapalas presiding over cardinal directions. This process can clearly be traced in Arakan, which received Indian culture by land from Bengal and by sea from other parts of India”. The city was the center of a large trade network linked to India, China and Persia. Evidence points to the use of the ancient Bengali script in Arakan. The Anandacandra inscription recorded the reign of the Candra dynasty. Since in the 8th century, Arab merchants began conducting missionary activities in southeast Asia. Some researchers have speculated that Muslims used
trade routes in the region to travel to India and
China. A southern branch of the
Silk Road connected India, Burma and China since the
Neolithic period. It is unclear whether the
Rakhine people were one of the tribes of the Burmese
Pyu city-states because the people in those states at the time spoke a
Tibeto-Burman language while Arakan (Rakhine) speakers are from the
Sino-Tibetan language family. They began migrating to Arakan through the Arakan Mountains in the 9th century. The Rakhines settled in the valley of the
Lemro River. Their cities included Sambawak I,
Pyinsa,
Parein, Hkrit, Sambawak II,
Myohaung,
Toungoo and
Launggret. of Arakan The
Launggyet Dynasty (1251–1429) later marked the final phase of the Lemro period in Arakan's history.
Kingdom of Mrauk U was home to a diverse population including Buddhists, Muslims, Christians and Hindus; from Arakan, Burma proper, Bengal, North India, Northeast India, the Middle East and Europe at the year of Arakanese Era 1136 (AD 1774) Arakan was a kingdom under siege in the 14th and 15th centuries. Mon invaders from Lower Burma conquered southern Arakan, including
Sandoway. In 1404, Burmese forces from Upper Burma conquered Laungyet. The ruler of Laungyet fled to the
Bengal Sultanate during the Burmese invasion. According to
Jacques Leider, Min Saw Mun fled to Bengal in 1406 and returned to Arakan in 1428. Min Saw Mun arrived in Bengal for self-imposed exile during the reign of Sultan
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah (1389–1410) and left for Arakan during the reign of Sultan
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah (1415–1432). An academic consensus prevails that Min Saw Mun returned to Arakan, regained the throne and shifted the capital from Laungyet to
Mrauk-U (erstwhile Mrohaung). The establishment of the capital at Mrauk-U heralded the most significant period in the history of Arakan. A new cosmopolitan kingdom emerged. In Arakanese traditional history, the restoration of the throne is glorified. Bengali literary texts and coinage are among the chief primary sources to detail the history of Arakan during the Mrauk-U period. Min Saw Mun regained control of the throne with military assistance from the Bengal Sultanate. Arakan emerged as a
vassal state of Bengal. Burhanuddin became the first Muslim defense minister of Arakan. Evidence points to an alliance between Bengal and Arakan to restore Min Saw Mun to the throne. The most significant evidence is that all post-restoration Arakanese rulers adopted Muslim titles in addition to native titles. This indicates a positive relationship with the court of Bengal. The throne of Tripura was also restored by the Bengal Sultanate. Arakanese traditional history states that Arakan was a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate for a certain period. The Arakan region remained predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as the
Rakhine people. Although all the kings of Arakan had Muslim titles (nicknames), none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists. File:King Min Razagyi.jpg|King Min Razagyi on Throne File:King Sanda Thudhamma Raza of Arakan.jpg|King
Sanda Thudhamma of
Arakan. File:King Maha Thammada Raza.jpg|
Maha Thammada, the last king of Arakan The
slave trade was the backbone of the Arakanese economy. Leider explains that “Arakan was sadly famed as the main provider of slaves in the Bay of Bengal” unlike Bengal's trade in
muslin, silk, shipbuilding, and saltpeter. Arakan also became home to a growing Muslim community. They included Muslim traders from the
Indian Ocean trade network and
Sufi missionaries who established themselves along the coasts of Arakan. More Muslims were found among the thousands of inhabitants of Bengal who were forcibly deported to Arakan. They included artists, craftsmen, soldiers, and highly educated people who were employed by the royal court. The kings imported labour, bureaucrats and artisans by raiding Lower Burma and southeast Bengal. They provided the craftsmen, guards, and artists at the palace; the rowers for the fleet, or the farmers on the royal lands. Some became ministers in the royal court. The heavy presence of
Bengali Muslims was documented by Arakanese and European records. The Mons were deported after the fall of
Pegu; they formed a group which could still be identified until the end of the eighteenth century.
Afghan soldiers fleeing the Mughal advance and Portuguese traders and adventurers settled in Arakan. They accepted appointments in the army. The hill chiefs of northern and southern Arakan provided troops who were ethnic
Thet,
Mrung,
Chin, or from other small minority groups.
King Min Khayi was the first to challenge Bengali hegemony by expanding Arakanese controlled area up to North, conquering
Ramu and challenged to
Chittagong. His son and successor King
Ba Saw Phyu defeated Bengal Sultan
Rukunuddin Barbak Shah in 1459 and occupied the
Chittagong but that period ain't prolonged. After
Min Dawlya, Arakan lost the territory of Chittagong temporarily until
Min Bin took over, who conquered
Chittagong again and further Northwest to Dhakha. or Min Bar Gree Statue Taking advantage of the
Mughal Empire's invasion campaign of Bengal, the Arakan navy and
pirates dominated a coastline of 1000 miles, spanning from the
Sundarbans to
Moulmein. The kingdom's coastline was frequented by Arab,
Dutch,
Danish and
Portuguese traders. Control of the
Kaladan River and Lemro River valleys led to increased
international trade, making Mrauk U prosperous. The reigns of
Min Phalaung,
Min Razagri and grandson
Min Khamaung strengthened the wealth and power of Mrauk U. The Santikan Mosque was built in Mrauk U. In 1660,
Shah Shuja, the brother of
Emperor Aurangzeb and a claimant of the
Peacock Throne, received asylum in Mrauk U. Members of Shuja's entourage were recruited in the Arakanese army and court. They were kingmakers in Arakan until the Burmese conquest. Arakan suffered a major defeat to the forces of
Mughal Bengal during the
Battle of Chittagong in 1666, when Mrauk U lost control of southeast Bengal. The Mrauk U dynasty's reign continued until the 18th century. File:Haridaung-Mrauk U-Aussicht-12-Pagoden im Dunst-gje.jpg|Skyline of Mrauk U File:Couloir-Koe-Thaung.jpg|Koe-Thaung Gateway File:Andaw-Mrauk U-14-Ratanabon-gje.jpg|Ratanabon File:Ratanabon Paya.jpg|Pagodas in Mrauk U
Burmese conquest The
Konbaung Dynasty conquered Arakan in 1784. Mrauk U was devastated during the invasion. It is also likely that Arakanese Muslims became dispersed across Burma and Bengal as either deportees or refugees due to the conflict. Arakan experienced a demographic vacuum as a result of the Burmese conquest. There were several uprisings against Burmese rule, including a rebellion by Chin Bya in 1811. The uprisings caused recurrent Burmese raids into British India, which led to the First Anglo-Burmese War.
British Empire after the British conquest in 1829 in 1931 The Burmese Empire ceded Arakan to the
British East India Company in the 1826
Treaty of Yandabo. Arakan became one of the
divisions of British India. Initially governed as part of the
Bengal Presidency, it received many settlers from neighboring
Chittagong Division. The settlers became influential in commerce, agriculture and shipping. selling slaves to the
Dutch East India Company, c.1663 CE During British rule, Arakan Division was one of the largest
rice exporters in the world. Arakan was the pioneer of the rice industry in British Burma. The emergence of Burma as a global rice exporter in the 20th century can be traced to Arakan. As one of the earliest regions to be conquered by the British, Arakan saw the removal of export restrictions imposed by the Burmese Empire. Rice was exproted to Bengal and beyond. Akyab (now Sittwe), the divisional capital of Arakan, was located in proximity to the
Chittagong Division of
British Bengal. In 1840, Akyab exported 74,500 tons of rice valued at an estimated 1.2 million rupees. In 1855, Akyab exported 162,000 tons of rice valued at an estimated 3 million rupees. The growth in rice exports was driven by the expansion of farmland – by clearing out jungles and cultivating paddy fields. Agriculturalists from
Chittagong played an important role in the development of the rice economy in Arakan. When the British took control of Arakan, the borderland with Bengal was filled with dense vegetation. British objectives in Arakan centred on stimulating the rice economy. Transforming forests and barren land into paddy fields offered the potential of generating revenue by taxing rice farmers. The colonial economy in South and Southeast Asia depended on the taxation of farmers. Arakan neighboured the densely populated province of Bengal where demand for rice was high. Rice was a staple food of Bengal and demand for rice surged during periods of food shortages and famine. Arakan met this demand and profited from the rice trade. Akyab had shipping links with the ports of Bengal, including
Calcutta, Chittagong,
Narayanganj,
Goalundo and
Dacca. By the 20th century, Akyab enjoyed shipping links with Europe, Malaya, China, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies. Arakanese rice was being exported to many parts of the world. The
American Civil War disrupted the rice supply chain from the southern states of the United States of America. European traders and millers looked for an alternative location for rice imports. British Burma, with its expanding and low cost rice production, provided a lucrative alternative to the United States. The arrival of leading European banking and shipping companies in Burma propelled the rice trade into the single most important cash crop sector of the Burmese economy. In 1864,
Liverpool imported an estimated 1000 tons of rice from Burma. The opening of the
Suez Canal lowered the cost of shipping from Burma. European firms began to set up rice mills in Burma itself. Indian and Chinese merchants proliferated Burma’s ports. The rice economy supported the development of infrastructure, public services and other sectors of commerce. Rice from Lower Burma and Arakan became the backbone of the Burmese economy. In 1869, Muslims constituted 12.24% of the population in Arakan. In 1931, they constituted 25.56%. In the divisional capital Akyab, the share of the Muslim population increased from 20.67% in 1869 to 38.41% in 1931. The British administration considered Chittagonian migration from Bengal as a key factor in the growth of the Muslim population. The colonial government encouraged Chittagonian migration as part of its policy to expand the rice economy in Arakan. The northern part of Arakan received the largest influx of settlers. The township of Naaf (now Maungdaw), which bordered Chittagong Division, became an extension of farmlands in
Cox’s Bazar. The Naaf economy was essentially integrated with the greater Chittagong economy. Between the 1870s and 1880s, the Naaf experienced a surge in population growth due to immigration. Settlers included not only Muslims and Hindus from Chittagong; but also returning Buddhist refugees who were displaced by earlier wars. Muslims formed the overwhelming majority of settlers. This was complemented by the transformation of waste lands into rice fields. Settlers constituted 70% of Naaf’s population, owned 79% of cultivated land and held 84% of tax-paying landed property. Colonial census reports in 1921 and 1931 described Arakanese Muslims with various terms, including “Arakan Mahomedans”, “Chittagonian Mahomedans born in Burma”, “Chittagonian Mahomedans born outside of Burma”, “Bengali Mahomedans born in Burma”, “Bengali Mahomedans born outside of Burma”, “Indian Muslims” and “Indo-Burmans”. Both groups were represented as natives in the
Legislative Council of Burma and the
Legislature of Burma. In the 1940s, Arakanese Muslims appealed to
Muhammad Ali Jinnah to incorporate the townships of the Mayu River valley into the
Dominion of Pakistan.
Burmese independence Arakan became one of the
Union of Burma's divisions after independence from British rule. Burma was a
parliamentary democracy until the
1962 Burmese coup d'état. The northern part of Arakan was governed by the central government in
Rangoon in the early 1960s. Known as the
Mayu Frontier District, it covered townships near the border with
East Pakistan. In 1982, the Burmese
junta enacted the
Burmese nationality law which did not recognize Arakanese Indians as one of Burma's ethnic groups, thereby stripping them of their citizenship. In 1989, the Burmese government altered the country's name from Burma to Myanmar. In the 1990s, the
State Peace and Development Council changed the name of Arakan State to
Rakhine State. The province was renamed after the
Rakhine ethnic group. However, the new name is not accepted as legitimate by many in both the Rakhine and
Rohingya communities, instead preferring the historical term Arakan. Rakhine-led groups like the
Arakan Liberation Army have sought independence for the region. Other groups, including the
Arakan Rohingya National Organization, have demanded
autonomy. The region witnessed military crackdowns during
Operation King Dragon in 1978; in 1991 and 1992 after the
8888 uprising and
1990 Burmese general election; the
2012 Rakhine State riots, the
2015 Rohingya refugee crisis and
Rohingya persecution in Myanmar (2016-present). ==Demographics==