Pre-history Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human settlement from the beginning of the
Stone Age. The hills at the height of 1,500 to 2,000 feet (460–615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of exposed dolerite basalt, useful for tool-making.
Ambari site in Guwahati has revealed
Shunga-
Kushana era artefacts including flight of stairs and a water tank which may date from 1st century BCE and may be 2,000 years old. Experts speculate that another significant find at Ambari is
Roman era Roman roulette pottery from the 2nd century BCE. Gupta explains that while Guwahati, formerly known as Pragjyotishpur in ancient times, is mentioned in epics like the Mahabharata and the Puranas, there is a lack of substantial archaeological evidence regarding its ancient history, especially before the 7th century AD.
Legend According to a late text,
Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century
CE), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danava of the
Danava dynasty, which was removed by
Narakasura of
Mithila and established the
Bhauma dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Narakasura, was slain by
Krishna. Naraksura's son
Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the
Kauravas in the
battle of Kurukshetra with an army of
kiratas,
chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. At the same time towards the east in central Assam,
Asura kingdom was ruled by another line of kings.
Ancient era Evidence indicates presence of civilisation in Assam around 2nd century BCE, a rock cut stupa at
Sri Surya Pahar has been dated to 200 BCE contemporary with rock cut
Karle and
Bhaja caves of Maharashtra. The site is located in a hilly terrain where several rock-cut
shivalingas, votive stupas and the deities of
Hindu,
Buddhist and
Jain pantheon are scattered.
Samudragupta's 4th-century-CE
Allahabad pillar inscription mentions
Kamarupa and
Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the
Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya River to near present
Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley,
North Bengal, parts of
Bangladesh and, at times
Purnea and parts of
West Bengal. The kingdom was ruled by three dynasties who traced their lineage from a mleccha or Kirata Naraka; the
Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), the
Mlechchha dynasty (c.655–900 CE) and the
Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day
Guwahati (
Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (
Haruppeswara) and
North Gauhati (
Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed descent from
Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king,
Bhaskaravarman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller
Xuanzang visited the
region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was extended to c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties. The medieval history of Assam is especially known for its conflict with Muslim powers under
Turko-Afghan and
Mughals, finally resulting in Assamese victory, however, this military glory was shattered in the early 19th century when it failed to resist the
Burmese invasions, which led to its annexation.
Chutia kingdom Chutia, a
Bodo-Kachari group by origin, held the regions on both the banks of Brahmaputra with its domain in the area eastwards from
Vishwanath (north bank) and
Buridihing (south bank), in
Upper Assam and in the state of
Arunachal Pradesh. It was annexed by the Ahoms in the year 1524. The rivalry between the Chutias and Ahoms for the supremacy of eastern Assam led to a series of conflicts between them from the early 16th century.
Kachari kingdom The Dimasa, a Bodo-Kachari dynasty that ruled from the 13th century until 1854, controlled territories stretching from the Dikhow River to central and southern Assam, with their capital at Dimapur. By the early 17th century, with the expansion of the Ahom kingdom, the Chutia regions were annexed, and by around 1536, the Kacharis were confined to the areas of Cachar and North Cachar. At this point, they became more of an ally to the Ahoms than a rival force.
Ahom kingdom Early period The
Ahoms, a
Tai group, ruled
Upper Assam for almost 600 years. In the year 1228 the Tai-Ahoms came to the
Brahmaputra Valley under the leadership of
Sukapha along with 9,000 men from
Mong Mao, a Tai state, situated in South-Western
Yunnan of China, and established his kingdom in
Upper Assam. In 1253, he founded the capital city in a hillock and named it
Charaideo. At the time of his advent, the area was inhabited by
Morans and Borahis, to the north, to the north-east was the
Chutia kingdom and to the south was the
Kachari kingdom and to the west on the plains were the
Baro-Bhuyans. For more than two and a half centuries, Sukapha and his descendants, while primarily focused on administering the kingdom, upheld their dominance in the valley through their military prowess.
Expansion (1230) in red dotted lines,
Koch dynasty (1560) in blue lines,
Ahom kingdom (1700) in red lines. The reign of
Suhungmung marked the first massive expansion of
Ahom kingdom. Besides sending a punitive expeditions against the Nagas, they fought numerous battles with the Bhuyans, Chutias, Kacharis, Turko-Afghans, and the Naras. In 1522–23 the
Chutia kingdom was annexed and the captured tract was placed under the administration of Sadiya-Khowa-Gohain. After securing the eastern tract, Suhungmung than expanded his kingdom westwards through conquest and extended it till Marangi to the west of the
Dhansiri River. When the Kacharis tried to regain the lost territory they were defeated and their capital
Dimapur was sacked. Over the remaining part of the Kachari kingdom, a new king Detsung was placed as a tributary, but Detsung proved disloyal and revolted against the Ahoms. He was subsequently executed. A new dependent king was set up on the Kachari throne with the name of Nirbhaynarayan. Since then the Kachari kings were regarded as 'thapita sanchita' meaning - established and maintained by the Ahom rulers. Suhungmung's reign also witnessed the first Muslim-invasions of the kingdom. After a series of battle, the invaders were roundly defeated and were chased up to
Karatoya River. The Sultan of Bengal, terrified by the approaching army of Suhungmung, made peace with the king.The rising Koch king
Biswa Singha also offered his submission, and the Ahom general Ton-Kham granted him all the territories that were received as dowry from the Sultan of Bengal on the condition of annual tribute. The successors of Suhungmung,
Suklenmung and
Sukhaamphaa, sent many expeditions against the Bhuyans and Nagas. But were significant with the wars with the Koch. During the reign of
Sukhaamphaa, the Ahoms lost to a Koch army led by
Chilarai and the Ahoms had to accept Koch supremacy and had to give up the tracts of north of Brahmaputra. However, the lost tract was soon recovered with further military expeditions.
Later Period War with Mughals Soon after the death of
Nara Narayan, his kingdom was divided between the sons of Nara Narayan and
Chilarai as
Koch Hajo and
Koch Bihar. In 1609, Laxmi Narayan king of
Cooch Behar accepted the vassalage of
Mughals, and the
Koch Hajo king Raghudev, and later his son Parikshit, sought assistance from the Ahoms. In 1612, the
Mughals attacked
Koch Hajo, and his territory up to
Barnadi River was annexed in the Mughal domain. This brought the Mughals into direct contact with the Ahoms. Meanwhile, Parikshit was trying to renew his friendship with the Ahoms, but was captured, and died on his way to his kingdom. Later,
Balinarayan, a brother of Parikshit who had taken refugee with the Ahoms, was made the king of Darrang in 1615 by the Ahom king
Pratap Singha. From 1616 onwards, many battles were fought with the Mughal without any tangible result, starting with the
Battle of Samdhara. After the last battle, the treaty was established in 1639, which fixed the Asurar ali on the south bank and the Barnadi on the north bank of the Brahmaputra as the boundary between the two. Pratap Singha also enacted the
Paik system and created a number of army and civil administration posts such as the
Borbarua and
Borphukan.
Jayadhwaj Singha took advantage of a
war of succession between the sons of
Shah Jahan, and occupied the imperial territories up to
Dhaka.
Aurangzeb, after becoming the emperor, appointed
Mir Jumla II, to recover the lost territory. After failed negotiations in November 1661, Mir Jumla proceeded with a huge army and fleet to invade the Ahom kingdom. The Ahoms lost at several places, and then captured the Ahom capital
Garhgaon. During the rainy season, Mir Jumla and his army suffered immeasurable hardship due to the climatic condition of the valley, in addition to the guerrilla fighting against the invaders. After no noticeable gain, negotiation started and in January 1663, the
Treaty of Ghilajharighat was established. According to the treaty, the Ahoms acknowledged Mughal supremacy, ceding the territory west of the Bharali on the north bank and the Kalang on the south bank, along with a huge amount of war indemnity, and handing over the sons of the Gohains as hostages, and two Ahom princesses to the Mughal harem. Soon after the departure of
Mir Jumla,
Jayadhwaj Singha died and the new king
Chakradhwaj Singha began preparations to overthrow Mughal supremacy and to recover the lost territory. After numerous battles, and finally the
Battle of Saraighat, the Mughals were forced to retreat. a 17th-century mud fort ruins The period after 1671 was very unstable due to the rivalry among the nobles, who wanted to establish their political power and influence by placing their own choice of prince in the throne. In 1679,
Laluksola Borphukan, in hopes of becoming king with the help of the Mughals, surrendered Guwahati without any battle. But after the accession of
Gadadhar Singha, at the final
Battle of Itakhuli, the Mughals were badly defeated. The border was then fixed at Manah on the north bank, and the Nagarbera hill on the south bank of the Brahmaputra till its annexation by the
East India Company in 1826.
18th century and
Ambika by Badha Ligira, . , Devi dol and Vishnu dol on the banks
Sivasagar tank, the largest temple constructed during Ahom era
Rudra Singha succeeded
Gadadhar Singha, his reign is notable because of his military achievements and his socio-culture contributions. He had both subjugated the Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms, and had captured their kings and forced to accept Ahom suzerainty and agreed them to pay annual tribute. Other than that, several expeditions were sent against the Miris, the Daflas, the Naga Mishmis and the Nagas of Namsung, Dayang and the Rengma Nagas during late 17th century and early 18th century. Rudra Singha had made extensive preparations for his invasion of Bengal but remained unfulfilled due to his sudden death in 1714. After
Rudra Singha, the Ahoms achieved no notable military achievement. During this period from,
Siva Singha to
Rajeswar Singha, the kingdom witnessed peace and prosperity and was significant for constructive activities and other development. In the field of religion also,
Ekasarana Dharma spread all over the kingdom and started to influence all aspects of people's life. The religious heads of Vaisnavite monastery exalted great influence with royal patronage and established numerous
Satras and most of the people became their disciples. So got the Ahom court greatly came under the influence of Sakta Brahman priests and astrologers. The religious policies concluded by
Phuleshwari and the persecutions of unfavored Satras, embroiled the situation more along with the pressure of
Paik system in the 18th century. This finally resulted in the
Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), which greatly weakened the
Ahom kingdom where the country was greatly depopulated and unorganised. The political rivalry between the nobles made a pathway for a devastating
set of invasions by the Burmese, weakening it more and finally leading to its annexation.
Colonial era in 1909 during the partition of Bengal (1905–1911), showing British India in two shades of pink (
coral and pale) and the
princely states in yellow. The
Assam Province (initially as the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam) can be seen towards the north-eastern side of India. In the later part of the 18th century, religious tensions and atrocities by the nobles led to the
Moamoria rebellion (1769–1805), resulting in tremendous casualties of lives and property. The rebellion was suppressed but the kingdom was severely weakened by the civil war. Political rivalry between Prime Minister Purnananda
Burhagohain and Badan Chandra
Borphukan, the
Ahom Viceroy of Western Assam, led to an invitation to the Burmese by the latter, in turn leading to three successive
Burmese invasions of Assam. The reigning monarch
Chandrakanta Singha tried to check the Burmese invaders but he was defeated after fierce resistance, which led to the Burmese occupation of Assam. A reign of terror was unleashed by the Burmese on the Assamese people, who fled to neighbouring kingdoms and British-ruled
Bengal. The Burmese reached the
East India Company's borders, and the
First Anglo-Burmese War ensued in 1824. The war ended under the
Treaty of Yandabo in 1826, with the Company taking control of Western Assam and installing
Purandar Singha as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The arrangement lasted until 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the entire region. Thereafter the court language and medium of instruction in educational institutions of Assam was made
Bengali, instead of Assamese. Starting from 1836 until 1873, this imposition of a foreign tongue created greater unemployment among the
People of Assam and Assamese literature naturally suffered in its growth. The discovery of
Camellia sinensis in 1834 in Assam was followed by testing in 1836–37 in London. The British allowed companies to rent land from 1839 onwards. Thereafter tea plantations proliferated in Eastern Assam, where the soil and the climate were most suitable. Problems with the imported Han Chinese labourers from China and hostility from native Assamese resulted in the migration of forced labourers from central and eastern parts of India. After initial trial and error with planting the Chinese and the Assamese-Chinese hybrid varieties, the planters later accepted the local
Camellia assamica as the most suitable variety for Assam. By the 1850s, the industry started seeing some profits. The industry saw initial growth, when in 1861, investors were allowed to own land in Assam and it saw substantial progress with the invention of new technologies and machinery for preparing processed tea during the 1870s. Despite the commercial success, tea labourers continued to be exploited, working and living under poor conditions. Fearful of greater government interference, the tea growers formed the
Indian Tea Association in 1888 to lobby to retain the status quo. The organisation was successful in this, but even after India's independence, conditions of the labourers have improved very little. The
Assam Postage Circle was established by 1873 under the headship of the Deputy Post Master General. Initially, Assam was made a part of the
Bengal Presidency, then in 1906 it was made a part of
Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was reconstituted into a chief commissioners' province. In 1913, a legislative council and, in 1937, the Assam Legislative Assembly, were formed in Shillong, the erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from central India adding to the demographic canvas. The Assam territory was first separated from Bengal in 1874 as the 'North-East Frontier'
non-regulation province, also known as the Assam Chief-Commissionership. It was incorporated into the new province of
Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 after the partition of Bengal (1905–1911) and re-established in 1912 as
Assam Province. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. Assam Province was one among the major eight provinces of British India. After a few initially unsuccessful attempts to gain independence for Assam during the 1850s, anti-colonial Assamese joined and actively supported the
Indian National Congress against the British from the early 20th century, with
Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam Congress. Bordoloi's major political rival in this time was Sir Saidullah, who was representing the
Muslim League, and had the backing of the influential Muslim cleric
Maulana Bhasani. With the partition of India in 1947, Assam became a constituent state of India. The
Sylhet District of Assam (excluding the Karimganj subdivision) was given up to East Pakistan, which later became Bangladesh.
Modern history Separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting in the fragmentation of Assam. In 1961, the government of Assam passed legislation making use of the
Assamese language compulsory. It was withdrawn later
under pressure from Bengali speaking people in Cachar. The government of India, which has the unilateral powers to change the borders of a state, divided Assam into several states within the borders of what was then Assam. In 1963, the Naga Hills district became the 16th state of India under the name of
Nagaland. Part of Tuensang was added to Nagaland. In 1970, in response to the demands of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo people of the
Meghalaya Plateau, the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam; in 1972 this became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh (the
North East Frontier Agency) and Mizoram (from the Mizo Hills in the south) were separated from Assam as union territories; both became states in 1986. Since the restructuring of Assam after independence, communal tensions and violence remain. In the 1980s the
Brahmaputra Valley saw a six-year
Assam Agitation triggered by the discovery of a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from neighbouring
Bangladesh and to provide constitutional, legislative, administrative and cultural safeguards for the indigenous Assamese majority, which they felt was under threat due to the increase of migration from Bangladesh. The agitation ended after an accord (Assam Accord 1985) between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained unimplemented, causing simmering discontent. The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups such as the
United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) == Geography ==