of
Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester and Hertford, |200x200px There is a direct line of descent from the seals used in the ancient world, to those used in medieval and post-medieval Europe, and so to those used in legal contexts in the western world to the present day. Seals were historically most often impressed in
sealing wax (often simply described as "wax"): in the Middle Ages, this generally comprised a compound of about two-thirds
beeswax to one-third of some kind of
resin, but in the post-medieval period the resin (and other ingredients) came to dominate. During the early Middle Ages seals of lead, or more properly "
bullae" (from the Latin), were in common use both in East and West, but with the notable exception of documents ("
bulls") issued by the
Papal Chancery these leaden authentications fell out of favour in western Christendom. The Walters Art Museum.|207x207px Wax seals were being used on a fairly regular basis by most western royal
chanceries by about the end of the 10th century. In England, few wax seals have survived of earlier date than the Norman Conquest, The practice of sealing in wax gradually moved down the social hierarchy from monarchs and bishops to great magnates, to petty knights by the end of the 12th century, and to ordinary freemen by the middle of the 13th century. They also came to be used by a variety of corporate bodies, including
cathedral chapters, municipalities, monasteries etc., to validate the acts executed in their name. The object in all cases is to help ensure authenticity by maintaining the integrity of the relationship between document and seal, and to prevent the seal's reuse. If a forger tries to remove an applied seal from its document, it will almost certainly break. A pendent seal is easily detached by cutting the cords or strips of parchment, but the forger would then have great difficulty in attaching it to another document (not least because the cords or parchment are normally knotted inside the seal), and would again almost certainly break it. In the Middle Ages, the majority of seals were pendent. They were attached both to
legal instruments and to
letters patent (i.e. open letters) conferring rights or privileges, which were intended to be available for all to view. In the case of important transactions or agreements, the seals of all parties to the arrangement as well as of witnesses might be attached to the document, and so once executed it would carry several seals. Most governments still attach pendent seals to
letters patent. Applied seals, by contrast, were originally used to seal a document closed: that is to say, the document would be folded and the seal applied in such a way that the item could not be opened without the seal being broken. Applied seals were used on
letters close (letters intended only for the recipient) and parcels to indicate whether or not the item had been opened or tampered with since it had left the sender, as well as providing evidence that the item was actually from the sender and not a forgery. In the post-medieval period, seals came to be commonly used in this way for
private letters. A letter writer would fold the completed letter, pour wax over the joint formed by the top of the page, and then impress a ring or other seal matrix. Governments sometimes sent letters to citizens under the governmental seal for their eyes only, known as letters secret. Wax seals might also be used with
letterlocking techniques to ensure that only the intended recipient would read the message. In general, seals are no longer used in these ways except for ceremonial purposes. However, applied seals also came to be used on
legal instruments applied directly to the face of the document, so that there was no need to break them, and this use continues.
Designs in Scotland, late 13th century, now in the
British Museum. embossed on a wafer (US)|151x151pxHistorically, the majority of seals were circular in design, although ovals, triangles, shield-shapes and other patterns are also known. The design generally comprised a graphic emblem (sometimes, but not always, incorporating
heraldic devices), surrounded by a text (the
legend) running around the perimeter. The legend most often consisted merely of the words "The seal of [the name of the owner]", either in Latin or in the local
vernacular language: the Latin word
Sigillum was frequently abbreviated to a simple
S:. Occasionally, the legend took the form of a
motto. In the Middle Ages it became customary for the seals of women and of ecclesiastics to be given a
vesica (pointed oval) shape. The central emblem was often a standing figure of the owner, or (in the case of ecclesiastical seals) of a saint. Medieval townspeople used a wide variety of different emblems but some had seals that included an image relating to their work.
Sealing wax was naturally yellowish or pale brownish in tone, but could also be artificially colored red or green (with many intermediary variations). In some medieval royal chanceries, different colours of wax were customarily used for different functions or departments of state, or to distinguish grants and decrees made in perpetuity from more ephemeral documents. The matrices for pendent seals were sometimes accompanied by a smaller
counter-seal, which would be used to impress a small emblem on the reverse of the impression. In some cases the seal and counter-seal would be kept by two different individuals, in order to provide an element of double-checking to the process of authentication. Sometimes, a large official seal, which might be in the custody of chancery officials, would need to be counter-sealed by the individual in whose name it had been applied (the monarch, or the mayor of a town): such a counter-seal might be carried on the person (perhaps secured by a chain or cord), or later, take the form of a signet ring, and so would be necessarily smaller. Other pendent seals were double-sided, with elaborate and equally-sized
obverses and reverses. The impression would be formed by pressing a "sandwich" of matrices and wax firmly together by means of rollers or, later, a lever-press or a
screw press. Certain medieval seals were more complex still, involving two levels of impression on each side of the wax which would be used to create a scene of three-dimensional depth. On the death of a seal-holder, as a sign of continuity, a son and heir might commission a new seal employing the same symbols and design-elements as those used by his father. It is likely that this practice was a factor in the emergence of hereditary
heraldry in western Europe in the 12th century. /
Mandorla-shaped seal of the cathedral chapter of
Moulins (France)
Ecclesiasticism Ecclesiastical seals are frequently
mandorla-shaped, as in the shape of an
almond, also known as
vesica-shaped. The use of a seal by men of wealth and position was common before the Christian era, but high functionaries of the Church adopted the habit. grant to
San Zeno,
Verona (1073) An incidental allusion in one of
St. Augustine's letters (217 to Victorinus) indicates that he used a seal. Depending on the
authority having jurisdiction for the project, these seals may be embossed and signed, stamped and signed, or in certain situations a computer generated facsimile of the original seal validated by a digital certificate owned by the professional may be attached to a security protected computer file. The identities on the professional seals determine legal responsibility for any errors or omissions, and in some cases financial responsibility for their correction as well as the territory of their responsibility, e.g.: "State of Minnesota". In some jurisdictions, especially in Canada, it is a legal requirement for a professional engineer to seal documents in accordance with the Engineering Profession Act and Regulations. Professional engineers may also be legally entitled to seal any document they prepare. The seal identifies work performed by, or under the direct supervision of, a licensed professional engineer, and assures the document's recipient that the work meets the standards expected of experienced professionals who take personal responsibility for their judgments and decisions. ) in the Province of
Saskatchewan, Canada
Custom houses In old
English law, a
cocket was a
custom house seal; or a certified document given to a shipper as a warrant that his goods have been duly entered and have paid duty. Hence, in
Scotland, there was an officer called the
clerk of the cocket. It may have given its name to
cocket bread, which was perhaps stamped as though with a seal.
Destruction The importance of the seal as a means of authentication necessitated that when authority passed into new hands the old seal should be destroyed and a new one made. When the pope dies it is the first duty of the
Cardinal Camerlengo to obtain possession of the
Ring of the Fisherman, the papal signet, and to see that it is broken up. A similar practice prevailed in the Middle Ages and it is often alluded to by historians, as it seems to have been a matter of some ceremony.
Matthew Paris gives a similar description of the breaking of the seal of William of Trumpington,
Abbot of St Albans, in 1235. The practice is less widely attested in the case of medieval laypeople, but certainly occurred on occasion, particularly in the 13th and 14th centuries. Silver seal matrices have been found in the graves of some of the 12th-century queens of France. These were probably deliberately buried as a means of cancelling them. When King
James II of England was dethroned in the
Glorious Revolution of 1688/9, he is supposed to have thrown the
Great Seal of the Realm into the
River Thames before his flight to France in order to ensure that the machinery of government would cease to function. It is unclear how much truth there is to this story, but certainly the seal was recovered: James's successors,
William III and
Mary used the same Great Seal matrix, fairly crudely adapted – possibly quite deliberately, in order to demonstrate the continuity of government.
Signet rings signet ring bearing the arms of the Baronnet family; goldsmith: Jean-Pierre Gautheron, Paris : 'Perfect God, Lord of the Two Lands' ('Ntr-Nfr, Neb-taui'; right to left columns)—
Musée du Louvre. A signet ring is a ring bearing on its flat top surface the equivalent of a seal. A typical signet ring has a design, often a family or personal
crest, created in
intaglio so that it will leave a raised (
relief) impression of the design when the ring is pressed onto liquid
sealing wax. The design is often made out of
agate,
carnelian, or
sardonyx which tend not to bind with the wax. Most smaller classical
engraved gems were probably originally worn as signet rings, or as seals on a necklace. The wearing of signet rings (from Latin "signum" meaning "sign" or "mark") dates back to ancient Egypt: the seal of a pharaoh is mentioned in the
Book of Genesis. Genesis 41:42: "Removing his signet ring from his hand,
Pharaoh put it on
Joseph's hand; he arrayed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain around his neck." Because it is used to attest to the authority of its bearer, the ring has also been seen as a symbol of power, which is why it is included in the
regalia of certain monarchies. After the death of a Pope, the destruction of his signet ring is a prescribed act clearing the way for the
sede vacante and subsequent election of a new Pope. Signet rings are also used as a souvenir or membership attribute, e.g.,
class rings (which typically bear the
coat of arms or crest of the school). Traditionally, signet rings were worn either on the
little or the ring finger of the least dominant hand, with the most common usage being on the little. The less noble classes began wearing and using signet rings as early as the 13th century. In the 17th century, signet rings fell out of favor in the upper levels of society, replaced by other means for mounting and carrying the signet. In the 18th century, though, signet rings again became popular, and by the 19th century, men of all classes wore them. Since at least the 16th century there have also been pseudo-signet rings where the engraving is not reversed (mirror image), as it should be if the impression is to read correctly. Rings have been used since antiquity as spy identification and in espionage. During World War II, US Air Force personnel would privately purchase signet rings with a hidden compartment that would hold a small compass or hidden message.
MI9 purchased a number of signet rings from Regent Street jewelers that were used to conceal compasses.
Modern tamper-proofing In modern use, seals are used to tamper-proof equipment. For example, to prevent gas and electricity meters from
being interfered with to show lower chargeable readings, they may be sealed with a lead or plastic seal with a government marking, typically fixed to a wire that passes through part of the meter housing. The meter cannot be opened without cutting the wire or damaging the seal. Specially-made
tamper-evident labels are available which are destroyed if the protected container or equipment is opened, functionally equivalent to a wax seal. They are used to protect things which must not be tampered with such as pharmaceuticals, equipment whose opening voids a manufacturer's warranty, etc. ==Legal provisions==