The term "Holstein" derives from
Old Saxon Holseta Land (
Holz means wood in modern Standardized German;
holt is a now-archaic English word for woods.) Originally, the term referred to the central of the three
Saxon tribes north of the
River Elbe:
Tedmarsgoi (Dithmarschen),
Holstein, and
Sturmarii (
Stormarn). The area inhabited by the tribe of the Holsts lay between the
Stör River and
Hamburg; after
Christianization, their main church was in
Schenefeld.
Saxon Holstein became a part of the
Holy Roman Empire after
Charlemagne's
Saxon campaigns in the late eighth century. Beginning in 811, the northern border of Holstein (and thus of the Empire) was the
River Eider. The term "Schleswig" originally referred to the city of
Schleswig. The word Schleswig is a German transliteration of the Danish word Slesvig, which consists of two words:
Schlei and vig. The Schlei refers to the river at which the city lies, and vig means "
inlet" or bay. Schleswig, therefore, means (in Danish): "The bay at the river Schlei". The Schlei is known as Slien in Danish and is believed to have been used only for the inner Slien (the Great and Little Bay near the city of Schleswig). The word is thought to be related to Slæ, which means reeds and aquatic plants found in this area. The
Duchy of Schleswig, or Southern Jutland, was originally an integral part of Denmark, but in
medieval times was established as a
fief under the control of the Kingdom of Denmark, having the same relationship with the
Danish Crown as, for example,
Brandenburg or
Bavaria had with the
Holy Roman Emperor. Around 1100, the
Duchy of Saxony gave Holstein to
Count Adolf I of
Schauenburg.
The Migration Period , starting at its northern terminus in
Viborg and reaching its southern terminus in
Hamburg During the
Migration Period, the
Jutland peninsula was home to several tribes. The
Jutes inhabited the most northern part of the peninsula from
Grenen to . This dyke, dating back to around the first century, served as the boundary between the Jutes in the north and the
Angles in the south. This dyke lost its relevance in the 200s when the Angles expanded northward, leading to the establishment of a new dyke called the . The southern border of the Angles was marked by the
marshes surrounding the
Eider, that combined with the dense
old-growth forest to the south of the river, formed a natural barrier. South of the forest lay the region now known as Holstein, which was divided between the
Germanic Saxons, who inhabited the western part, and the
Slavic Wagri, who lived in the eastern part. In the 8th century, the Wagri became part of the Slavic tribal confederation known as the
Obotrites (also known as the
Wends by the Danes and Saxons). During the 4th and early 5th centuries, a significant migration saw the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons depart from their homelands to settle in the
British Isles. This mass exodus left much of the Jutland Peninsula sparsely populated, allowing the Danes from southern Scandinavia and the islands of
Zealand,
Funen, and other smaller Danish isles to migrate into the peninsula. They gradually settled the region, integrating the remaining Jutes and Angles who had not left for Britain. By the mid-5th century, the Danes had established settlements from Grenen in the north to just north of the Eider River and its marshes. Their southernmost settlements being around
Schwansen,
Hedeby and
Husum, mirroring the same southern border as their Angle predecessors. As raiding was a frequent practice among the Danes, Saxons, and Wagrians, the borderlands was a hostile and unsafe area to inhabit. In response to these threats, the Danes began constructing the
Danevirke. Originally built as a dyke, it was gradually expanded into a 30-kilometer earthwork with a palisade fortification, forming a barrier between the Danes and their southern neighbors. The Danevirke was strategically positioned at the narrowest point of the peninsula, with its eastern end beginning at the
Treene River and extending to the
Schlei Bay. This fortification served to deter Saxon and Wagrian raids while enabling the Danes to launch their own raids into southern territories. It would remain in use until 1864, being expanded and adapted to the changing military needs of the Danes multiple times. The establishment of the Danevirke not only helped to prevent Saxon and Wagrian raids into Danish territory but also served as a toll station. Danish chieftains would collect fees from traders, merchants, and peasants traveling along the
Hærvejen (Heerweg/Armyway), the main trade route running through the peninsula. Saxons, Wagrians, and Danes alike used the Hærvejen to trade goods such as honey, furs, amber, glass, metalwork, and other commodities, such as livestock, with cattle and oxen being particularly important. Especially the Danes developed a thriving livestock breeding industry, driving large herds along the Hærvejen to sell on the continent. This trade gave the route its alternative names, such as "Studevejen" (Cattle Way) in Danish and "Ochsenweg" (Oxen Way) in German. Therefore control of the Danevirke, through which the Hærvejen ran, was of immense financial significance. Whoever controlled the gates of Danevirke also controlled the trade along the Hærvejen, giving them access to substantial wealth.
The Early Middle Ages After approximately 350 to 400 years of Danes being the sole inhabitants north of the Eider, the
Frisians arrived in two waves, the first of which occurred in the 800s. They came from
Frisia and initially settled on the islands of
Heligoland,
Sylt,
Föhr, and
Amrum in the southwestern part of Jutland. Later, they expanded to
Eiderstedt and the Jutish coastline. These areas eventually became known as
North Frisia, though historically, the region was referred to as
Uthlande (Outland). In these settlements, the Frisians established fishing and trading stations. The local Danes soon became a minority and, over time, assimilated into the Frisian population. The Frisians contributed to the broader Hærvejen trade network, with sea routes extending along the Frisian and Dutch coasts, supplying high-quality salt, fish, and other maritime goods. Moreover, they were particularly active in trade with
East Anglia in
England, where pottery was exchanged in large quantities.
Saxon Wars and the
Obotrites, established about 810 in present-day Schleswig-Holstein Normalcy in the area vanished with the expansion of the
Frankish Empire into
Saxony from 772 to 804, triggering a generational war on an unprecedented scale for the region. Before this, the Franks had spent nearly 20 years, from the late 600s to the early 700s, subjugating and converting the
Frisian Kingdom. Their primary opponent was the formidable Frisian king
Redbad, who fiercely resisted the Franks until his death. Now, the Frisians' neighbors, the Saxons, faced Frankish expansion. The
casus belli was a Saxon raid on the church in
Deventer in January of 772. This conflict, fueled by
Charlemagne's desire to conquer the Saxons and convert them from their belief in the
Germanic pantheon to
Christianity, used the Deventer raid as a pretext to wage a war that would ultimately reshape the political and cultural landscape of what would later become Holstein forever. Throughout 18 campaigns, carried out in three phases over 32 years, Charlemagne aimed to subdue the Saxons and forcibly convert them to Christianity, in what became known as the
Saxon Wars. In retaliation for the raid on the church in Deventer, Charlemagne ordered his troops to destroy the holy pillar
Irminsul, near
Paderborn in either 772 or 773—a notorious act that sent shockwaves throughout the Germanic pagan world. It has been postulated that Irminsul symbolised
Yggdrasil Ash - the world tree. Charlemagne then destroyed all Saxon settlements up to the
Wesser river. After defeating the Saxons and securing
hostages, he turned his attention to northern
Italy. For centuries, the Danes and Saxons had regarded each other as kindred peoples, sharing the same belief in the Germanic pantheon and frequently intermarrying, especially among the elite. Thus, the defeated Saxon warleader
Widukind sought refuge with his father-in-law, Danish king
Sigfred. The
Royal Frankish Annals mentions that Widukind received substantial aid from Sigfred, though the exact nature of this aid is not explicitly stated. However, the chronicles do note that Sigfred and Charlemagne brokered a peace agreement some years later, indicating that Sigfred, upon hearing Widukind's plea, may have mustered his army and joined the war on the side of the Saxons. In response to the Danes' involvement in the war, Charlemagne seems to have recruited the
Obotrites by promising them the Saxon portion of Holstein. This alliance with Charlemagne shifted the balance of power in the region. In 782, after another defeat of the Saxons, Charlemagne ordered the mass execution of 4,500 Saxons, an atrocity that became known as the
Massacre of Verden. Following this brutal act, Charlemagne was nicknamed the "Butcher of Saxons" or "Saxonslaughterer." In 796, despite Saxony being fully under Frankish rule, the Saxons rose once more, supported by the Danes. The rebellion was triggered by the forced conscription of Saxons for the Frankish
wars against the Avars. Moreover, Charlemagne, in alliance with the Obotrites, planned to subjugate the Danes, now led by King
Gudfred Sigfredson. However, Gudfred struck first. He expanded the Danevirke, assembled a fleet, mustered an army, and launched attacks on the Obotrites and later Frankish Frisia. But he was slain, either by one of his
huscarls or possibly his own illegitimate son, on the Frisian campaign. The new Danish king,
Hemming, Gudfred's nephew, initiated peace talks, which resulted in the
Treaty of Heiligen in 810. The treaty established the Danish border at the Eider River. Charlemagne retained Saxony, including Holstein, and established the
Limes Saxoniae as a border with the Obotrites. This agreement established firm boundaries between the Franks, Obotrites, and Danes, securing peace in the region.
Duchies in the Danish realm Between 500 and 1200, Schleswig was an integral part of Denmark, but during the 12th century,
Duke Abel of Schlewig came into conflict with his brother
King Eric IV. Abel managed to gain autonomy from his brother, making Schleswig an autonomous duchy. Later, Abel had Eric assassinated and seized the throne. Despite this, Schleswig remained an autonomous duchy within the Kingdom, setting the stage for future conflicts. Beginning in 1460, both the
Duchy of Schleswig and
Duchy of Holstein were ruled together by the Danish king, who acted as the duke of both regions. Holstein, being a duchy within the
Holy Roman Empire, created a situation where the Danish king was sovereign of Denmark but also a duke within the Holy Roman Empire. Both were ruled for several centuries by the kings of Denmark. In 1721, all of Schleswig was united into a single duchy under the king of Denmark, and the great powers of Europe confirmed in an international treaty that all future kings of Denmark should automatically become dukes of Schleswig: consequently, Schleswig would always follow the order of succession that applied in the Kingdom of Denmark. After the Protestant Reformation, German was established as the language of commerce, administration, education, and clergy in Schleswig despite the population being ethnically Danish. This was because Schleswig was managed by the German Chancellery in Kiel, which was later renamed the Schleswig-Holstein Chancellery in 1806. Therefore, Danes were sent to Kiel for their education instead of Copenhagen, where they received their education in German rather than their native Danish. As a result, Danish students, future administrators, clergy, and educators were taught in German and continued to use the language throughout their professional lives. In 1814, mandatory schooling was instituted, and it was taught in German. This created generations of Danish children who learned German from an early age. Their schooling was conducted in German, they heard sermons in German, and when they grew up, their interactions with the administration and business were conducted in German. Additionally, if Danes didn't learn German, they couldn't communicate with the administration, which often cared little if the citizens were able to understand them. Therefore, if the Danes weren't able to speak German, they were effectively frozen out of any official matters. As a result, a language shift slowly began forming in South Schleswig and gradually spread north, which alarmed Copenhagen. The Danish authorities started taking countermeasures to halt the language shift by banning German in all official matters in Schleswig, which only served to create tensions between Danes and Germans. This language strife significantly contributed to shaping the inhabitants' national sentiments during a time of national unrest in Europe. It is also during this period that we see surname changes, such as from Jørgensen to Jürgensen or Nielsen to Nilsen, in South Schleswig. By the time of the First Schleswig War, one-third of Schleswig and half of South Schleswig spoke German as their first language. By the time of the Second Schleswig War in 1864, half of Schleswig and the vast majority of South Schleswig spoke German as their first language.
Schleswig-Holstein Question In the 19th century, fueled by
nationalism, both Danes and Germans claimed Schleswig-Holstein. The Germans wanted both Schleswig and Holstein to separate from Denmark and join the
German Confederation, invoking the
Treaty of Ribe stating that the two duchies should stay "Forever Undivided". The Danes, on the other hand, furthered the Eider Policy (
:da:Ejderpolitikken), stating that the natural Danish border was the
Eider (river) as first recognised in the
Treaty of Heiligen. Therefore, the Danes sought to reintegrate Schleswig into the
Kingdom of Denmark, reversing the separation created by King Abel, while also granting Holstein independence to join the German Confederation as a sovereign entity. The resulting long-term political and territorial dispute was known as the
Schleswig-Holstein Question. Holstein was entirely German-speaking, while Schleswig was predominantly Danish-speaking until the late 1700s and early 1800s. During this period, a linguistic shift began in southern Schleswig, transitioning from Danish to German. This meant that Schleswig was linguistically divided with a Danish-speaking north and a German-speaking south. In 1848, King
Frederick VII of Denmark declared that he would grant Denmark a liberal constitution and the immediate goal of the Danish national movement was to ensure that this constitution would give rights to all Danes, i.e. not only to those in the Kingdom of Denmark, but also to Danes (and Germans) living in Schleswig. Furthermore, they demanded protection for the Danish language in Schleswig (the dominant language in almost a quarter of Schleswig had changed from Danish to German since the beginning of the 19th century). A liberal constitution for Holstein was not seriously considered in
Copenhagen, since it was well known that the political élite of Holstein were more conservative than Copenhagen's. Representatives of German-minded Schleswig-Holsteiners demanded that Schleswig and Holstein be unified and allowed its own constitution and that Schleswig join Holstein as a member of the
German Confederation. These demands were rejected by the Danish government in 1848, and the Germans of Holstein and Southern Schleswig rebelled.
First Schleswig War This began the
First Schleswig War (1848–51). Against unbelievable odds, Denmark emerged victorious, managing to politically outmaneuver the German alliance by garnering support from the
British Empire, the
Russian Empire and the
Second French Empire while defeating the Germans at the
Battles of Bov, the
Dybbøl, the
Fredericia and
Isted. However, under pressure from the
Great Powers, led by
Tsar Alexander II, who had forced
Prussia and
Austria out of Denmark, the Danes were not permitted to reintegrate Schleswig into Denmark. Alexander thereby sought to preserve the existing European order, per the principles established by the
Concert of Europe. This led to the signing of the
1852 London Protocol, which failed to provide a solution to the issue and merely upheld the status quo.
Second Schleswig War In 1863, conflict broke out again when Frederick VII died without legitimate issue. According to the
order of succession of Denmark and Schleswig, the crowns of both Denmark and Schleswig would pass to Duke Christian of
Glücksburg, who became
Christian IX. The transmission of the duchy of Holstein to the head of the (German-oriented) branch of the Danish royal family, the
House of Augustenborg, was more controversial. The separation of the two duchies was challenged by the Augustenborg heir, who claimed, as in 1848, to be the rightful heir of both Schleswig and Holstein. A common constitution for Denmark and Schleswig was promulgated in November 1863, which was a breach of the 1852 London Protocol. This left Denmark politically isolated and led to the
Second Schleswig War, with Prussia and Austria invading once again. This was the
Second War of Schleswig. Denmark achieved some initial victories at the
Battles of Mysunde, and
Sankelmark, but these successes were short-lived. The Austrians defeated the Danes at the
Königshügel and
Vejle. However, it was the Prussians who decided the war by decisively winning the pivotal
Battles of Dybbøl and
Als. British attempts to mediate in the
London Conference of 1864 failed. With the peace
Treaty of Vienna (1864), Denmark was forced to cede Schleswig, Holstein, and
Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria. Prussia wished to annex the conquered territories, but Austria insisted they be held as
condominiums. This disagreement led to the 1865
Gastein Convention, which, despite its being the defence of the German-speaking Schleswig-Holsteiners' wish to remain unified, granted Schleswig and Lauenburg to Prussia and Holstein to Austria. However, this situation did not last long.
Austro-Prussian War and Province of Prussia In 1866, the
Austro-Prussian War broke out, in which Prussia quickly defeated Austria and its allies. In the 1866
Peace of Prague, Prussia gained Holstein in addition to Schleswig and Lauenburg. Contrary to the hopes of German Schleswig-Holsteiners, the area did not gain its independence, but was annexed to Prussia, becoming the
Province of Schleswig-Holstein in 1868; Lauenburg remained a separate entity until it was incorporated as in 1876. The Peace of Prague also led to the dissolution of the loose (
confederal) Austrian-led
German Confederation and the establishment of the far more integrated (
federal) Prussian-led
North German Confederation, of which Schleswig-Holstein was now part as a Prussian Province; the North German Confederation became the
German Empire in 1871. Section five of the Peace of Prague had also stipulated that the people of Northern Schleswig would be consulted in a
referendum on whether to remain under Prussian rule or return to Danish rule. This condition, however, was never fulfilled by Prussia. During the decades of Prussian rule within the
German Empire, authorities attempted a
Germanisation policy in the northern part of Schleswig, which remained predominantly Danish. The period also meant increased industrialisation of Schleswig-Holstein and the use of Kiel and Flensburg as important
Imperial German Navy locations. The northernmost part and the west coast of the province saw a wave of emigration to America, while some Danes of North Schleswig emigrated to Denmark.
Plebiscite in 1920 After the defeat of Germany in
World War I, the Allied powers arranged
a plebiscite in northern and central Schleswig. The plebiscite was conducted under the auspices of an international commission, which designated two voting zones to cover the northern and south-central parts of Schleswig. Steps were taken to also create a third zone covering a southern area, but zone III was cancelled again and never voted, as the Danish government asked the commission not to expand the plebiscite to this area. In zone I covering Northern Schleswig (10 February 1920), 75% voted for
reunification with Denmark and 25% voted for Germany. In zone II covering central Schleswig (14 March 1920), the results were reversed; 80% voted for Germany and just 20% for Denmark. Only minor areas on the island of
Föhr showed a Danish majority, and the rest of the Danish vote was primarily in the town of Flensburg. On 15 June 1920, Northern Schleswig officially returned to Danish rule. The Danish/German border was the only one of the borders imposed on Germany by the
Treaty of Versailles after World War I that was never challenged by the Nazis. In 1937, the Nazis passed the so-called
Greater Hamburg Act (), where the nearby Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg was expanded, to encompass towns that had formerly belonged to the Prussian
province of Schleswig-Holstein. To compensate Prussia for these losses (and partly because Hitler had a personal dislike for
Lübeck), the 711-year-long independence of the Hansestadt Lübeck came to an end, and almost all its territory was incorporated into Schleswig-Holstein, along with the
Oldenburg exclave centred on
Eutin (for historical reasons known as ).
State of Federal Germany After
World War II, the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein came under
British occupation. On 23 August 1946, the military government abolished the province and reconstituted it as a separate
Land. On 9 September 1946, the British and Soviets offered Denmark South Schleswig, in the . In this note, they gave Denmark carte blanche on how to deal with the German-speaking South Schleswigers, whether to integrate them into the Danish state or to forcibly expel them from South Schleswig, as was
being done to Germans in Eastern Europe. Denmark's then Prime Minister,
the Liberal Party's Knud Kristensen, enthusiastically accepted the offer of South Schleswig reunification with Denmark. A survey showed that 75% of the Danish population supported the incorporation, 500,000 signatures had been collected in support of it, and the Danish South Schleswig Association had sent the government a formal request for incorporation. However, the dominating
Social Liberal Party feared that Denmark might again face destructive wars like the two Schleswig Wars once Germany recovered from World War II. Given that the Germans had conquered Denmark in six hours during the
German invasion of Denmark, they believed Denmark would not stand a chance in such a scenario. Therefore, they pressured the Prime Minister to call for
new elections, where the
Liberal Party did not secure enough votes to form a government. The
Social Democrats won the election with a minority government and could not gather a strong enough mandate for the incorporation of South Schleswig. This outcome created outrage within the Danish population and was considered a scandal. Due to the
forced migrations of Germans between 1944 and 1950, Schleswig-Holstein
took in almost a million refugees after the war, increasing its population by 33%. A pro-Danish political movement arose in Schleswig, with transfer of the area to Denmark as an ultimate goal. This was supported neither by the British occupation administration nor the Danish government. In 1955, the German and Danish governments issued the
Bonn-Copenhagen Declarations confirming the rights of the ethnic minorities on both sides of the border. Conditions between the nationalities have since been stable and generally respectful. ==Geography==