Pre-modern history Early
Shakyas,
Koliyas,
Mallakas, and
Licchavis are recorded as having assemblies that were accessible to affluent men of certain social classes. Other Sangha (Buddhism)|s and gana|s had councils of unelected nobles; these bodies did not conform to modern standards of democracy and functioned more similarly to elite
oligarchic councils. The Greek historian
Diodorus, writing approximately two centuries after the time of
Alexander the Great, refers to democratic states in India. However, there is a lack of evidence for electoral processes, and the term "democracy" in the 3rd century BCE may have referred more broadly to autonomous polities rather than representative governance. In the 10th century CE, inscriptions at the
Vaikunda Perumal Temple suggest the election of local representatives to village councils during the
Chola Empire.
Independence from colonial rule presenting the final draft of the
Constitution of India to
Rajendra Prasad in November 1949. Following nearly two centuries of British colonial rule, initially
under the East India Company and later
under direct governance by the British Crown, India gained
independence in 1947 after a sustained
nationalist anti-colonial movement. This movement was predominantly led by the
Indian National Congress (INC; also known simply as the "Congress") and prominent figures such as
Mahatma Gandhi and
Jawaharlal Nehru. However, the movement was also shaped by a diverse range of ideological influences, including
communism and
Dalit leaders. Prominent figures associated with these currents included
B. R. Ambedkar, a leading advocate for the abolition of the
caste system, and
Subhas Chandra Bose, a
militant nationalist leader, allied with the
Axis Powers in
World War II. The independence process was marred by a surge of religious and communal divisions, culminating in a
bloody partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. This division created two separate nations:
Pakistan with a Muslim majority, and India with a Hindu majority. The partition was characterised by widespread violence, mass displacement, and
one of the largest refugee crises in history. India formally became a sovereign, democratic republic in 1950 with the adoption of the
world's longest written constitution. The constitution was drafted by a
Constituent Assembly, chaired by Ambedkar. The country held
its first general election between late 1951 and early 1952, implementing
universal adult suffrage, and drawing heavy inspiration from the
Westminster parliamentary system. The Congress secured a decisive electoral victory and Nehru was elected as
the first prime minister of the country. This established India as the world's largest liberal democracy.
Nehruvian era After independence, the Congress emerged as India's dominant political party. The
reorganization of Indian states in 1956 along linguistic lines—transforming the
colonial-era presidencies and provinces and fully integrating over 500
princely states—both responded to and further fueled the rise of notable regional movements. Congress secured a decisive victory in the
1957 general election. Notably, 1957 also witnessed a landmark development in the state of
Kerala, where the
Communist Party of India (CPI), under the leadership of
E. M. S. Namboodiripad, formed the government—marking one of the first democratically elected communist governments in the world. The Congress maintained its political dominance by winning the
1962 general election in another landslide. Nehru remains the longest-serving holder of the office of the prime minister, having led the country for sixteen years. Nehru's premiership embraced
republicanism,
secularism,
social democracy, and a policy of
non-alignment during the
Cold War. The
caste system persisted, despite the constitutional abolition of caste-based discrimination. At the same time, the Congress developed into an increasingly
clientelist organisation. Socialist government regulations expanded significantly in what became known as the
Licence Raj. However, these regulations often favoured established industrialists and large corporations, while disadvantaging small businesses, thereby contributing to the consolidation of capitalism. Nehru
died in 1964 and was succeeded as prime minister by
Lal Bahadur Shastri. Shastri's untimely death just two years later, in 1966, led to his succession by Nehru's daughter,
Indira Gandhi, India's first and only female prime minister. Nehru is often regarded as the architect of modern India.
Indira Gandhi and the Emergency in 1966. In response to a decline in support for Congress in the
1967 general election, Indira Gandhi embraced an increasingly
populist platform. This led to opposition from the party's
right-wing, ultimately causing Congress to split in 1969 into the conservative and anti-socialist
Congress (O), and the Gandhi-led socialist
Congress (R). She is credited to have
centralised power, and her political base has been described as a
cult of personality. Though many praised her for her
state socialism and
protectionism, others criticised her alleged
Machiavellianism and perceived insincerity regarding her socialist stance. Meanwhile, in 1967, an armed peasant revolt erupted in the village of
Naxalbari in the state of
West Bengal, led by tribals and radical
Maoist-inspired communists. This event, known as the
Naxalbari uprising, marked the inception of the
Naxalite–Maoist insurgency—a
protracted conflict that has persisted for decades. Rising economic turmoil led to an increase in
civil unrest. Gandhi's increasing control over the judiciary, alongside undermining and bypassing of court rulings, sparked multiple constitutional crises. In 1974, a wave of student-led protests in the state of
Bihar, initially sparked by inflation, unemployment, and corruption, rapidly escalated into a broader movement of mass resistance, demanding systemic transformation and directly challenging Gandhi's authority. Known as the
Bihar Movement, it was led by socialist leader
Jayaprakash Narayan, who called for a "total revolution". On 12 June 1975, the
Allahabad High Court found Gandhi guilty of electoral malpractice in the
Raj Narain verdict. In the face of massive political opposition, disorder, and dissent across the country, Gandhi enacted a state of emergency. In 1977,
Gandhi called for fresh elections, which resulted in a historic landslide victory for the
Janata Party, a broad anti-Congress coalition. Janata Party leader
Morarji Desai subsequently became the country's first non-Congress prime minister.
Post-Emergency era The
Desai Premiership ended the state of emergency and amended the constitution to make it more difficult for the government to declare emergencies. Desai's economic policies were met with little success. Significant ideological and political divisions eroded the Janata government. In 1979, Desai resigned and
Charan Singh was appointed prime minister. Singh himself resigned just months later. In the
1980 election, Congress resurged, facilitating Indira Gandhi's return to power. Gandhi was
assassination in 1984 by her
Sikh bodyguards in the aftermath of
Operation Blue Star, a deeply controversial military action in the
Golden Temple, a sacred site in
Sikhism, in an attempt to crack down on
Sikh separatists. Her followers reacted by conducting a
series of nationwide anti-Sikh pogroms, leading to the deaths of thousands. Indira Gandhi's son,
Rajiv Gandhi, succeeded her as prime minister, with the
Nehru–Gandhi family evolving into a political dynasty. The Congress government faced criticism for its handling of the anti-Sikh violence. Many accused the party of complicity, failing to bring the majority of perpetrators to justice, and allegedly providing state support or engaging in cover-ups. The events of 1984 contributed to the intensification of the
Punjab insurgency, a Sikh separatist movement that escalated into a decade-long armed conflict in
Punjab, the state with the largest Sikh population.
Rise of coalition politics, Hindutva, and economic liberalisation Rajiv Gandhi won a landslide victory in the
1984 election. At the age of 40, he became India's youngest prime minister. His tenure saw a shift towards economic deregulation. The Congress was defeated in
1989, and
V. P. Singh of the
Janata Dal coalition assumed office. His implementation of the
Mandal Commission report, expanding
reservations for lower caste Hindus, sparked
significant social and political unrest. The 1990s also marked the ascent of
Hindutva in Indian politics, with the
demolition of the Babri Masjid. Following Singh's ousting through a
motion of no confidence,
Chandra Shekhar briefly served as prime minister before resigning in 1991. With the
1991 election, the Congress returned to power under
P. V. Narasimha Rao, whose government initiated
sweeping economic liberalisation amidst a
severe balance of payments crisis. The Congress lost the
1996 election.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee of the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), closely affiliated with the
right-wing Hindutva paramilitary organisation
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), briefly became prime minister but his government fell within days. Two successive
United Front coalition governments under
H. D. Deve Gowda and
Inder Kumar Gujral followed, both short-lived due to political instability. He became the first non-Congress prime minister to complete a full term. His government conducted
successful nuclear weapons tests in 1998, continued economic liberalisation, and improved
diplomatic relations with the United States. Dependent on coalition support and led by the moderate Vajpayee, the BJP was unable to advance key ideological goals, which sowed dissent among hardliners within the party. In 2002, a series of widespread
anti-Muslim pogroms across Gujarat, led to the deaths of over a thousand people. The state government, led by
chief minister Narendra Modi, is considered complicit in the riots, and he has faced serious accusations of state-sponsored terrorism.
UPA coalition governance The
2004 general election resulted in the Congress returning to power, leading the
United Progressive Alliance (UPA), a coalition of
centrist and
centre-left parties. Following the election,
Manmohan Singh assumed office as the first
Sikh and non-Hindu prime minister. Singh continued the process of economic liberalisation and is widely credited with contributing to a period of sustained economic growth in India. His administration's handling of the
Great Recession enabled the country to navigate the economic downturn more effectively than many other nations. He sought reconciliation with Pakistan and deepened ties with the United States. Singh secured a second term following the UPA's victory in the
2009 general election. His government became increasingly associated with corruption, as it was implicated in several high-profile scandals. The constraints of coalition politics contributed to what was widely perceived by the public as policy paralysis, although some contended that this perception was exaggerated or manufactured. Despite robust economic growth, increases in
economic inequality and
unemployment also took place. His later administration witnessed public disillusionment and a decline in popular support. Meanwhile,
Hindutva continued rising in the country, with many attributing the perceived failures of Singh's administration as a significant contributing factor. The clearance of Narendra Modi for the 2002 Gujarat riots, by a special panel of
India's Supreme Court in 2012, led to anger and disbelief among the country's
Muslim communities. In the
2014 general election, the BJP, led by Modi, adopted a
right-wing populist platform. The party achieved a historic landslide victory, marking the first occasion since 1984 that a single party secured an outright majority in the parliament. The election was seen as the end of the dominance of the Congress in India's political landscape.
Modi era Upon his inauguration, Narendra Modi became the first prime minister of India to be born after the country's independence. His first term primarily focused on reducing
bureaucratic red tape, implementing extensive economic liberalisation, and overhauling the economic system. even as welfare programmes and government spending were scaled back. These policies continued into his successive terms. In the
2019 general election, he secured another landslide victory. Modi's second term witnessed a pronounced ideological shift towards
Hindutva. He has been widely credited with engineering a shift in India to
right-wing politics, contributing to the state-backed mainstreaming of Hindutva, previously considered to be on the political fringe. High levels of economic growth and development have coincided with an intensification of economic inequality, reaching levels surpassing those observed during the colonial era. This has been described by many scholars, academics, and experts as "Billionaire Raj" or India's
Gilded Age, and is generally considered to be a crystallisation of trends that had emerged in the 1990s. The administration has faced criticism for allegedly fostering
crony capitalism. Modi's government was criticised for mishandling the
COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the pandemic contributed to a broader
cost-of-living crisis that persisted beyond its conclusion. Throughout his tenure, many observers have noted a significant and sustained
decline in democratic norms in India. The Modi government has employed state power to suppress dissent across various sectors, including the arts, academia, journalism, and the political opposition, while also leading to an
increasingly right-wing and pro-government mainstream media. His political base has been compared to a
cult of personality. In the
2024 general election, the BJP lost its parliamentary majority and now leads an NDA coalition government. The result coincided with a global
anti-incumbency wave and a resurgence of the opposition, led by the Congress party—though gains were largely driven by regional parties rather than a full revival of the Congress. ==Structure==