Native Dacians Evidence concerning the continued existence of a native Dacian population within Roman Dacia is not as apparent as that of
Germans,
Celts,
Thracians, or
Illyrians in other provinces. There is relatively poor documentation surrounding the existence of native or indigenous Dacians in the Roman towns that were established after Dacia's incorporation into the empire. Although
Eutropius, supported by minor references in the works of Cassius Dio and
Julian the Apostate, describes the widespread depopulation of the province after the siege of Sarmizegetusa Regia and the suicide of king Decebalus, there are issues with this interpretation. The remaining manuscripts of Eutropius'
Breviarium ab urbe condita, which is the principal source for the depopulation of Roman Dacia after the conquest, are not consistent. Some versions describe the depletion of men after the war; other variants describe the depletion of things, or possibly resources, after Trajan's conquest. There are such interpretations of archaeological evidence which shows the continuation of traditional Dacian burial practices; ceramic manufacturing continued throughout the Roman period, in both the province as well as the periphery where Roman control was non-existent. Differing interpretations can be made from the final scene on
Trajan's Column, which either depicts a Dacian emigration, accelerating the depopulation of Dacia, or Dacians going back to their
settlements after yielding to Roman authority. While it is certain that colonists in large numbers were imported from all over the empire to settle in Roman Dacia, this appears to be true for the newly created Roman towns only. The lack of epigraphic evidence for native Dacian names in the towns suggests an urban–rural split between Roman multi-ethnic urban centres and the native Dacian rural population. On at least two occasions the Dacians rebelled against Roman authority: first in 117 AD, after Trajan's death, and in 158 AD when they were put down by
Marcus Statius Priscus. The
archaeological evidence from various types of settlements, especially in the Oraștie Mountains, demonstrates the deliberate destruction of hill forts during the annexation of Dacia, but this does not rule out a continuity of occupation once the traumas of the initial conquest had passed. Hamlets containing traditional Dacian architecture, such as
Obreja and
Noșlac, have been dated to the 2nd century AD, implying that they arose at the same time as the Roman urban centres. Some settlements do show a clear continuity of occupation from pre-Roman times into the provincial period, such as
Cetea and
Cicău. Archaeological evidence taken from pottery show a continued occupation of native Dacians in these and other areas. Architectural forms native to pre-Roman Dacia, such as the traditional sunken houses and storage pits, remained during Roman times. Such housing continued to be erected well into the Roman period, even in settlements which clearly show an establishment after the Roman annexation, such as Obreja. Altogether, approximately 46 sites have been noted as existing on a spot in both the
La Tène and Roman periods. Where archaeology attests to a continuing Dacian presence, it also shows a simultaneous process of Romanization. Traditional Dacian pottery has been uncovered in Dacian settlements, together with Roman-manufactured pottery incorporating local designs. The increasing Romanization of Dacia meant that only a small number of earlier Dacian pottery styles were retained unchanged, such as pots and the low thick-walled drinking mug that has been termed the "Dacian cup". These artefacts were usually handmade; the use of the pottery wheel was rare. In the case of homes, the use of old Dacian techniques persisted, as did the sorts of ornaments and tools used prior to the establishment of Roman Dacia. Archaeological evidence from burial sites has demonstrated that the native population of Dacia was far too large to have been driven away or wiped out in any meaningful sense. It was beyond the resources of the Romans to have eliminated the great majority of the rural population in an area measuring some . Silver jewellery uncovered in graves show that some of the burial sites are not necessarily native Dacian in origin, but are equally likely to have belonged to the Carpi or
Free Dacians who are thought to have moved into Dacia sometime before 200 AD. Some scholars have used the lack of
civitates peregrinae in Roman Dacia, where indigenous peoples were organised into native townships, as evidence for the Roman depopulation of Dacia. Prior to its incorporation into the empire, Dacia was a kingdom ruled by one king, and did not possess a regional tribal structure that could easily be turned into the Roman
civitas system as used successfully in other provinces of the empire. Dacian tribes mentioned in
Ptolemy's
Geography may represent indigenous administrative structures, similar to those from Moesia, Pannonia,
Dalmatia, or Noricum. Few local Dacians were interested in the use of
epigraphs, which were a central part of Roman cultural expression. In Dacia this causes a problem because the survival of epigraphs into modern times is one of the ways scholars develop an understanding of the cultural and social situation within a Roman province. Apart from members of the Dacian elite and those who wished to attain improved social and economic positions, who largely adopted Roman names and manners, the majority of native Dacians retained their names and their cultural distinctiveness even with the increasing embrace of Roman cultural norms which followed their incorporation into the Roman Empire. As per usual Roman practice, Dacian males were recruited into auxiliary units and dispatched across the empire, from the eastern provinces to
Britannia. The
Vexillation Dacorum Parthica accompanied the emperor Septimius Severus during his
Parthian expedition, while the
cohort I Ulpia Dacorum was posted to
Cappadocia. Others included the
II Aurelia Dacorum in
Pannonia Superior, the
cohort I Aelia Dacorum in Roman Britain, and the
II Augusta Dacorum milliaria in Moesia Inferior. There are a number of preserved relics originating from
cohort I Aelia Dacorum, with one inscription describing the
sica, a distinctive Dacian weapon. In inscriptions the Dacian soldiers are described as
natione Dacus. These could refer to individuals who were native Dacians, Romanized Dacians, colonists who had moved to Dacia, or their descendants. Numerous
Roman military diplomas issued for Dacian soldiers discovered after 1990 indicate that veterans preferred to return to their place of origin; per usual Roman practice, these veterans were given Roman citizenship upon their discharge.
Colonists There were varying degrees of Romanization throughout Roman Dacia. The most Romanized segment was the region along the Danube, which was predominately under imperial administration, albeit in a form that was partially barbarized. The population beyond this zone, having lived with the Roman legions before their withdrawal, was substantially Romanized. The final zone, consisting of the northern portions of
Maramureș,
Crișana, and Moldavia, stood at the edges of Roman Dacia. Although its people did not have Roman legions stationed among them, they were still nominally under the control of Rome, politically, socially, and economically. These were the areas in which resided the Carpi, often referred to as "Free Dacians". In an attempt to fill the cities, cultivate the fields, and mine the ore, a large-scale attempt at colonization took place with colonists coming in "from all over the Roman world". The colonists were a heterogeneous mix: of the some 3,000 names preserved in inscriptions found by the 1990s, 74% (c. 2,200) were Latin, 14% (c. 420) were Greek, 4% (c. 120) were
Illyrian, 2.3% (c. 70) were
Celtic, 2% (c. 60) were
Thraco-Dacian, and another 2% (c. 60) were
Semites from Syria. Regardless of their place of origin, the settlers and colonists were a physical manifestation of Roman civilisation and imperial culture, bringing with them the most effective Romanizing mechanism: the use of
Latin as the new
lingua franca. The first settlement at Sarmizegetusa was made up of Roman citizens who had retired from their legions. Based upon the location of names scattered throughout the province, it has been argued that, although places of origin are hardly ever noted in epigraphs, a large percentage of colonists originated from Noricum and western Pannonia. Specialist miners (the
Pirusti tribesmen) were brought in from Dalmatia. These Dalmatian miners were kept in sheltered communities
(Vicus Pirustarum) and were under the jurisdiction of their own tribal leadership (with individual leaders referred to as
princeps).
Roman army in Dacia , castra and roads in Dacia minted to commemorate the province of Dacia and its legions An estimated number of 50,000 troops were stationed in Dacia at its height. At the close of Trajan's first campaign in Dacia in 102, he stationed one legion, or a
vexillation, at Sarmizegetusa Regia. With the conclusion of Trajan's conquest of Dacia, he stationed at least two legions in the new province: the
Legio IV Flavia Felix positioned at Berzobis (modern
Berzovia, Romania), and the Legio XIII Gemina stationed at Apulum. It has been conjectured that there was a third legion stationed in Dacia at the same time, the
Legio I Adiutrix. However, there is no evidence to indicate when or where it was stationed, and it is unclear whether the legion was fully present, or whether it was only the
vexillationes who were stationed in the province. Hadrian, the subsequent emperor, shifted the fourth legion (Legio IV Flavia Felix) from Berzobis to Singidunum in Moesia Superior, suggesting that Hadrian believed the presence of one legion in Dacia would be sufficient to ensure the security of the province. The
Marcomannic Wars that erupted north of the Danube forced Marcus Aurelius to reverse this policy, permanently transferring the Legio V Macedonica from
Troesmis (modern
Turcoaia in Romania) in Moesia Inferior to Potaissa in Dacia. Epigraphic evidence attests to large numbers of auxiliary units stationed throughout the Dacian provinces during the Roman period; this has given the impression that Roman Dacia was a strongly militarized province. Yet, it seems to have been no more highly militarized than any of the other frontier provinces, like the Moesias, the Pannonias, and Syria, and the number of legions stationed in Moesia and Pannonia were not diminished after the creation of Dacia. However, once Dacia was incorporated into the empire and the frontier was extended northward, the central portion of the Danube frontier between
Novae (near modern
Svishtov, Bulgaria) and Durostorum (modern
Silistra, Bulgaria) was able to release much-needed troops to bolster Dacia's defences. Military documents report at least 58 auxiliary units, most transferred into Dacia from the flanking Moesian and Pannonian provinces, with a wide variety of forms and functions, including
numeri,
cohortes milliariae,
quingenariae, and
alae. This does not imply that all were positioned in Dacia at the same time, nor that they were in place throughout the existence of Roman Dacia.
Settlements When considering provincial settlement patterns, the Romanized parts of Dacia were composed of
urban satus settlements, made up of
coloniae,
municipia, and rural settlements, principally villas with their associated
latifundia and villages (
vici). The two principal towns of Roman Dacia, Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa and Apulum, are on par with similar towns across the
Western Roman Empire in terms of socio-economic and architectural maturity. at
Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa The province had about 10 Roman towns, all originating from the military camps that Trajan constructed during his campaigns. There were two sorts of urban settlements. Of principal importance were the
coloniae, whose free-born inhabitants were almost exclusively Roman citizens. Of secondary importance were the
municipia, which were allowed a measure of judicial and administrative independence. ;Towns in Dacia Superior •
Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa was established by Trajan, was first to be given
colonia status, and was the province's only
colonia deducta. Its pre-eminence was guaranteed by its foundation charter and by its role as the administrative centre of the province, as well as its being granted
Ius Italicum. •
Ulpianum •
Singidava •
Germisara •
Argidava •
Bersovia •
Alburnus major •
Apulum (predecessor of
Alba Iulia) began as one of Trajan's legionary bases. Almost immediately, the associated
canabae legionis was established nearby, while at some point during the Trajanic period a civilian settlement sprang into existence along the
Mureș River, approximately from the military encampment. The town evolved rapidly, transforming from a
vicus of Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa into a
municipium during Marcus Aurelius' reign, with the emperor Commodus elevating it to a
colonia. Transformed into the capital of Dacia Apulensis region within Dacia Superior, its importance lay in being the location of the military high command for the tripartite province. It began to rival Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa during the reign of Septimius Severus, who allocated a part of Apulum's
canabae with municipal status. •
Napoca was the possible location of the military high command in Dacia Porolissensis. It was made a
municipium by Hadrian, and Commodus transformed it into a
colonia. •
Potaissa was the camp of the Legio V Macedonica during the Marcomannic Wars. Potaissa saw a
canabae established at the gates of the camp. Granted
municipium status by Septimius Severus, it became a
colonia under
Caracalla. •
Porolissum was situated between two camps, and laid alongside a walled frontier defending the main passageway through the Carpathian Mountains. It was transformed into a
municipium during Septimius Severus' reign. Within Dacia Superior, Porolissum was a center of Dacia Prolissensis as Apulum for Dacia Apulensis. •
Dierna/Tierna (modern
Orșova, Romania) •
Tibiscum (Jupa, Romania) •
Ampelum (
Zlatna, Romania) were important Roman towns. Although the biggest mining town in the region, Ampelum's legal status is unknown. Dierna was a customs station which was granted
municipium status by Septimus Severus. •
Sucidava (modern
Corabia, Romania) was a town located at the site of an earthwork camp. Erected by Trajan, Sucidava was neither large enough nor important enough to be granted
municipium or
colonia status. The town remained a
pagus or perhaps a
vicus. ;Towns in Dacia Inferior •
Drobeta was the most important town of Dacia Inferior. Springing up in the vicinity of a stone camp housing 500 soldiers and established by Trajan to guard the northern approaches to
Trajan's Bridge across Ister (
The Danube), the town was elevated by the emperor Hadrian to a
municipium, holding the same rights as an Italian town. During the middle 190s, Septimius Severus transformed the town into a full-fledged
colonia. •
Romula was possibly the capital of Dacia Malvensis. It held the rank of
municipium, possibly under the reign of Hadrian, before being elevated to
colonia status by Septimius Severus. It is often problematic to identify the dividing line between "Romanized" villages and those sites that can be defined as "small towns". Therefore, categorizing sites as small towns has largely focused on identifying sites that had some evidence of industry and trade, and not simply a basic agricultural economic unit that would almost exclusively produce goods for its own existence. Additional settlements along the principal route within Roman Dacia are mentioned in the
Tabula Peutingeriana. These include Brucla, Blandiana,
Germisara, Petris, and
Aquae. Both Germisara and Aquae were sites where natural thermal springs were accessible, and each are still functioning today. The locations of Brucla, Blandiana, and Petris are not known for certain. In the case of Petris however, there is good reason to suppose it was located at
Uroi in Romania. If this were the case, it would have been a crucial site for trade, as well as being a vital component in facilitating communication from one part of the province to another. It is assumed that Roman Dacia possessed a large number of military
vici, settlements with connections to the entrenched military camps. This hypothesis has not been tested, as few such sites have been surveyed in any detail. However, in the mid-Mureș valley, associated civilian communities have been uncovered next to the auxiliary camps at
Orăștioara de Sus,
Cigmău,
Salinae (modern Ocna Mureș), and
Micia, with a small
amphitheatre being discovered at the latter one. During the period of Roman occupation, the pattern of settlement in the Mureș valley demonstrates a continual shift towards nucleated settlements when compared to the pre-Roman Iron Age settlement pattern. In central Dacia, somewhere between 10 and 28 villages have been identified as aggregated settlements whose primary function was agricultural. The settlement layouts broadly fall between two principal types. The first are those constructed in a traditional fashion, such as
Rădești,
Vințu de Jos, and Obreja. These show generally sunken houses in the Dacian manner, with some dwellings having evolved to becoming surface timber buildings. The second settlement layout followed Roman settlement patterns. The identification of
villa sites within central Dacia is incomplete, as it is for the majority of the province. There are about 30 sites identified throughout the province which appear on published heritage lists, but this is felt to be a gross underestimation.
Economy Dacia required great expense for its military garrisons but the mineral deposits in Transylvania must have enhanced Dacia's economic importance to Rome and the most valuable resource was gold.
Alburnus Maior was founded by the Romans during the reign of
Trajan as a mining town, with
Illyrian colonists from South Dalmatia. New information surfaced in the form of wax-coated wooden writing tablets, several of which were discovered at Verespatak from 1786 and which bear a variety of commercial texts, contracts, and accounts dating to 131–167. The earliest reference to the town is on a
wax tablet dated 6 February 131. Over time the mines began to see diminishing returns as the local gold reserves were exploited. Evidence points to the closure of the gold mines around the year 215 AD. With the Roman army ensuring the maintenance of the
Pax Romana, Roman Dacia prospered until the
Crisis of the Third Century. Dacia evolved from a simple rural society and economy to one of material advancement comparable to other Roman provinces. There were more coins in circulation in Roman Dacia than in the adjacent provinces. The region's natural resources generated considerable wealth for the empire, becoming one of the major producers of grain, particularly wheat. Linking into Rome's monetary economy, bronze Roman coinage was eventually produced in Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa by about 250 AD (previously Dacia seems to have been supplied with coins from central mints). The establishment of Roman roads throughout the province facilitated economic growth. Dacia also possessed salt, iron, silver, and copper mines dating to the period of the Dacian kings. The region also held large quantities of building-stone materials, including
schist,
sandstone,
andesite, limestone, and marble. Towns became key centres of manufacturing.
Bronze casting foundries existed at Porolissum, Romula, and Dierna; there was a
brooch workshop located in Napoca, while weapon smithies have been identified in Apulum. Glass manufacturing factories have been uncovered in Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa and Tibiscum. Villages and rural settlements continued to specialise in craftwork, including pottery, and sites such as
Micăsasa could possess 26
kilns and hundreds of moulds for the manufacture of local
terra sigillata. The Romans used
stibnite to
decolourize glass, the production of which ended after they lost control of its Dacian mines.
Religion Inscriptions and sculpture in Dacia reveal a wide variety in matters of religion. Deities of the official state religion of Rome appear alongside those originating in Greece, Asia Minor, and Western Europe; of these, 43.5% have Latin names. The major gods of the
Roman pantheon are all represented in Dacia:
Jupiter,
Juno,
Minerva,
Venus,
Apollo,
Liber,
Libera, and others. The Roman god
Silvanus was of unusual importance, second only to Jupiter. He was frequently referred to in Dacia with the titles
silvester and
domesticus, which were also used in Pannonia. About 20% of Dacian inscriptions refer to
Eastern cults such as that of
Cybele and
Attis, along with more than 274 dedications to
Mithras, who was the most popular among soldiers. The cult of the
Thracian Rider was imported from
Thrace and Moesia. The
Gallic horse goddess
Epona is attested in Dacia, as are the
Matronae. While the Dacians worshiped local divinities, there is no evidence of any
Dacian deity entering the Roman pantheon of gods, and there is no evidence of any Dacian deity worshiped
under a Roman name. It is conjectured that the Dacians lacked an
anthropomorphic conception of deity, and that the Thraco-Dacian religion and their art was characterized by
aniconism. Dacian citadels dated to the reigns of Burebista and Decebalus have yielded no statues in their sanctuaries. With the destruction of the main Dacian sacred site during Trajan's wars of conquest, no other site took its place. However, there were other cult sites of local spiritual significance, such as Germisara, which continued to be used during the Roman period, although religious practices at these sites were somewhat altered by Romanization, including the application of Roman names to the local spirits. Highly Romanized urban centres brought with them Roman funerary practices, which differed significantly from those pre-dating the Roman conquest. Archaeological excavations have uncovered funerary art principally attached to the urban centres. Such excavations have shown that
stelae were the favoured style of funerary memorial. However, other more sophisticated memorials have also been uncovered, including
aediculae,
tumuli, and
mausoleums. The majority were highly decorated, with sculptured lions, medallions, and columns adorning the structures. This appears to be an urban feature only – the minority of cemeteries excavated in rural areas display burial sites that have been identified as Dacian, and some have been conjectured to be attached to
villa settlements, such as
Deva,
Sălașu de Sus, and Cincis. Traditional Dacian funerary rites survived the Roman period and continued into the post-Roman era, during which time the first evidence of
Christianity begins to appear. == Last decades of Dacia Traiana (235–271/275) ==