Electric car

The term "electric car" typically refers specifically to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) or all-electric cars, a type of electric vehicle (EV) that has an onboard rechargeable battery pack that can be plugged in and charged from the electric grid, and the electricity stored on the vehicle is the only energy source that provide propulsion for the wheels. The term generally refers to highway-capable automobiles, but there are also low-speed electric vehicles with limitations in terms of weight, power, and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on certain public roads. The latter are classified as Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in the United States, and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe. == History ==

Early developments Robert Anderson is often credited with inventing the first electric car some time between 1832 and 1839. The following experimental electric cars appeared during the 1880s: • In 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car driven by an improved Siemens motor at the Exposition internationale d'Électricité de Paris. • in 1882 Werner von Siemens presents the Electromote, the world's first trolleybus, in Berlin. • In 1884, Thomas Parker built an electric car in Wolverhampton, England using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895. • In 1888, the German Andreas Flocken designed the Flocken Elektrowagen, regarded as the first "real" electric car. • In 1890, Andrew Morrison introduced the first electric car to the United States. Electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, providing a level of comfort and an ease of operation that could not be achieved by the era's internal combustion cars. The electric vehicle fleet then peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles. In 1897, electric cars found commercial use as taxis in Britain and in the United States. In London, Walter Bersey's electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn. In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the Electrobat II, as part of a project partlyfunded by the Philadelphia Electric Storage Battery Company. During the 20th century, the main US manufacturers of electric vehicles included Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn Wagon Company (Milburn Light Electric), Bailey Electric, and Detroit Electric.. Six electric cars held the land speed record in the 19th century. The last was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the speed barrier by reaching a top speed of in 1899. Electric cars remained popular until advances in internal-combustion engine (ICE) cars left them behind. that replaced laborious methods such as hand-cranking. File:Capture d’écran 2016-10-14 à 21.26.28.png|Gustave Trouvé's personal electric vehicle (1881), the world's first publicly presented full-scale electric car powered by an improved Siemens motor File:First Trolleybuss of Siemens in Berlin 1882 (postcard).jpg|The Electromote, the world's first trolleybus by Werner von Siemens, Berlin 1882 File:Thomas Parker Electric car.jpg|Electric car built by Thomas Parker in 1884 - photo from 1895 File:1888 Flocken Elektrowagen.jpg|The Flocken Elektrowagen from 1888 File:Jamais contente.jpg|"La Jamais Contente", 1899 File:Apollo15LunarRover.jpg|NASA's Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven (1971). File:EV1 (6).jpg|The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of with NiMH batteries in 1999. File:Tesla Roadster.JPG|The Tesla Roadster (2008) Renaissance In the early 1990s the California Air Resources Board began to push for lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal of zero-emissions vehicles. Automakers responded with electric models, although they were later withdrawn. California electric-automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 of what became the Tesla Roadster, first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway-legal all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than per charge. Better Place developed battery charging and battery swapping services, but went bankrupt in 2013. has invested in a wide-ranging electrification strategy in Europe, North America and China, with its electric "MEB" platform. The 2009 Mitsubishi i-MiEV was the first highway-legal series production electric car, and the first to sell more than 10,000 units. The Nissan Leaf, launched in 2010, quickly surpassed it as the best-selling all-electric car. in 2008, advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve urban air quality, increased interest in EVs. During the 2010s, EVs in China expanded rapidly with government support. In July 2019 Motor Trend awarded the Tesla Model S the title "ultimate car of the year". In March 2020 the Tesla Model 3 passed the Nissan Leaf to become the best-selling electric car, with more than 500,000 units delivered; ==Economics==

EVs typically have a much lower cost of ownership than ICE vehicles. Early differences in purchase cost have shrunk due to intense competitive pressures. Total cost of ownership Generally, electricity costs less than petrol per kilometre travelled, although petrol and electricity prices vary dramatically by location, origin and even time of day. Petrol prices are affected by taxes and formulation, while electricity can be generated by rooftop solar, or the electric utility. EV motors are for more efficient than ICE vehicles, which turn 2/3 or their energy into heat instead of propulsion. The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of ownership for an EV is less than for an equivalent ICE car. EV drivers save approximately 50% on maintenance and repair costs, attributable to the simpler mechanical structure and fewer moving parts than ICE vehicles. Battery replacement The risk of an out-of-warranty battery replacement represents the greatest source of long-term financial uncertainty for EV owners. Costs for replacement battery packs typically range from $5,000 to $16,000, varying on the size of the pack and the manufacturer. In large, high-capacity trucks, replacement quotes have been reported to approach $47,000, e.g., for the Long Range Ford F-150 Lightning. Battery replacement events are rare, and batteries have achieved greater durability than anticipated. EV batteries often outlast vehicle lifetimes with minimal degradation. Industry standard warranties cover batteries for 8 years or 100,000 miles, guaranteeing minimum capacity retention, typically at 70%. Purchase cost In 2024, electric cars were typically somewhat more expensive to purchase than ICE cars. That year saw a few categories where new electric cars were cheaper upfront than ICE vehicles. For instance, small EVs in China were roughly half the price as small petrol cars. Electric SUVs became cheaper than petrol ones for the first time in 2024 in China. In 2026, EVs in the UK had become cheaper to buy than petrol cars. The largest cost item of an electric car is its battery. Battery prices decreased from per kWh in 2010, to in 2017, to in 2019. LFP batteries are cheaper than the more powerful NCM cells. ==Environmental aspects==

in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world. Electric cars have lower environmental impacts then ICE cars, including a significant reduction of air pollution, as they do not emit exhaust pollutants. However, like ICE cars, electric cars emit particulates from tyres. Because EVs typically use regenerative braking, brake wear is much less, often allowing brakes to be excluded from routine maintenance. Battery manufacturing typically involves greater environmental costs than ICE vehicles, although this is typically offset by the ongoing costs of petroleum production. Some activists and journalists have raised concerns over the perceived lack of impact of electric cars in solving the climate change crisis compared to other, less popularized methods. These concerns have largely centered around the existence of less carbon-intensive and more efficient forms of transportation such as active mobility, mass transit and e-scooters and the continuation of a system designed for cars first. == Performance ==

Drivetrain Electric motors provide high power-to-weight ratios. Electric motors have a flat torque, from a standing start. Most EVs use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch. Electric cars can achieve faster acceleration than commercial ICE cars, due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses and the motor's uniform torque at low speeds. Some designs place a motor in each wheel hub or next to the wheels. Some direct current motor-equipped drag racer EVs have two-speed manual transmissions. The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claimed to be able to go from in 2.5 seconds. ==Energy efficiency==

Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as the fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning the fuel. Petrol engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel's energy to move the vehicle or to power accessories; diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%; electric vehicles convert over 77% of the electrical energy to the wheels. This is partially offset by power required to move the heavy batteries. Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting energy into driving energy. Some cars with dual motors use one motor for most driving and the second motor for increased power. Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking. PTC junction cooling is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster. Some models heat the cabin while the car is plugged in, such as the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe,. EVs such as the Citroën Berlingo Electrique use an auxiliary heating system such as petrol-fueled units. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked; two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius offer this feature. ==Safety==

EV safety issues are addressed by international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided into three parts: • Energy storage, i.e. the battery • Functional safety and protection against failures • Electrical hazards Research published in the British Medical Journal in 2024 reported that between 2013 and 2017 in the United Kingdom, electric cars killed pedestrians at twice the rate of ICE vehicles because "they are less audible to pedestrians in urban areas". Some jurisdictions require EVs to generate sounds when moving. On average, an accident will cause about 50% more injuries to the occupants of a vehicle than those in a vehicle. Heavier cars are more dangerous to people outside the car if they hit a pedestrian or another vehicle. Stability The battery in skateboard configuration lowers the center of gravity, increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control. Additionally, a lower center of gravity provides a greater resistance to roll-over crashes. If there is a separate motor near or in each wheel, this is claimed to be safer due to better handling. Risk of fire Like their ICE counterparts, electric vehicle batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure. Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have occurred, albeit fewer per distance traveled than ICE vehicles. Some cars' high-voltage systems are designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment, and in case of failure firefighters may be trained for manual high-voltage system shutdown. Much more water may be required than for ICE car fires and a thermal imaging camera is recommended to warn of possible re-ignition of battery fires. ==Controls==

, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear, and no parking pawl may be present, the modes "P" and "N" are often still provided on the selector. In this case, the motor is disabled in "N" and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the "P" mode. In some cars, the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in "D", similar to a traditional automatic transmission car. When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking, depending on the type of transmission and mode. EVs are usually equipped with regenerative braking that slows the vehicle and recharges the battery somewhat. Regenerative braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes (similar to engine braking in an ICE vehicle), reducing brake wear and maintenance costs. ==Batteries==

Lithium-ion-based batteries are often used for their high power and energy density. Batteries with different chemical compositions are becoming more widely used, such as lithium iron phosphate which is not dependent on nickel and cobalt so can be used to make cheaper batteries and thus cheaper cars. Range -rated range for model year 2020 electric cars rated up until January 2020 The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and (as with all vehicles), the aerodynamics, weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, and the weather. Cars marketed for mainly city use are often manufactured with a short range battery to keep them small and light. Most electric cars are fitted with a display of the expected range. This may take into account how the vehicle is being used and what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route, the estimate can vary from the actual range. The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency. Charging Connectors Most electric cars use a wired connection to supply electricity for recharging. Electric vehicle charging plugs are not universal throughout the world. However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations through the use of plug adapters. The Type 2 connector is the most common type of plug, but different versions are used in China and Europe. The Type 1 (also called SAE J1772) connector is common in North America but rare elsewhere, as it does not support three-phase charging. Wireless charging, either for stationary cars or as an electric road, is less common , but is used in some cities for taxis. Home charging Electric cars are usually charged overnight from a home charging station; sometimes known as a charging point, wallbox charger, or simply a charger; in a garage or on the outside of a house. typical home chargers are 7 kW, but not all include smart charging. Charging from a standard outlet is also possible but very slow. Public charging , Brazil. This station is run by Petrobras and uses solar energy. , Czech Republic Public charging stations are almost always faster than home chargers, with many supplying direct current to avoid the bottleneck of going through the car's AC to DC converter, the fastest being 350 kW. Combined Charging System (CCS) is the most widespread charging standard, Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle's battery to 80% in 15 to 20 minutes. Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as two hours to refill a battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it. Some companies are building battery swapping stations, to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge. Some electric cars (for example, the BMW i3) have an optional petrol range extender. The system is intended as an emergency backup to extend range to the next recharging location, and not for long-distance travel. Vehicle-to-grid: uploading and grid buffering During peak load periods, when the cost of generation can be very high, electric vehicles with vehicle-to-grid capabilities could contribute energy to the grid. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. The batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to buffer power. Lifespan As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently charged to 100%; however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable. A typical warranty is 8 years or , but for non-professional drivers mileage may not be relevant, and the batteries usually last much longer, perhaps 15 to 20 years in the car and then more years in another use. ==Currently available electric cars==

Sales of electric cars Tesla became the world's leading electric vehicle manufacturer in December 2019. Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 and 2016, its Model 3 has been the world's best selling plug-in electric car for four consecutive years, from 2018 to 2021, and the Model Y was the top selling plug-in car in 2022. The Tesla Model 3 surpassed the Leaf in early 2020 to become the world's cumulative best selling electric car. and in June 2021, the Model 3 became the first electric car to pass 1 million sales. Tesla has been listed as the world's top selling plug-in electric car manufacturer, both as a brand and by automotive group for four years running, from 2018 to 2021. with 936,222 of those delivered in 2021. BYD Auto is another leading electric vehicle manufacturer, with the majority of its sales coming from China. From 2018 to 2023, BYD produced nearly 3.18 million purely plug-in electric car, with 1,574,822 of those were produced in 2023 alone. In the fourth quarter of 2023, BYD surpassed Tesla as the top-selling electric vehicle manufacturer by selling 526,409 battery electric cars, while Tesla delivered 484,507 vehicles. , the Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance listed as one of major all-electric vehicle manufacturers, with global all-electric vehicle sales totaling over 1 million light-duty electric vehicles, including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors since 2009. Nissan leads global sales within the Alliance, with 1 million cars and vans sold by July 2023, , global sales totaled over 650,000 units since inception. SAIC Motor with 1,838,000 units (), Geely, and Volkswagen. The following table lists the all-time best-selling highway-capable all-electric cars with cumulative global sales of over 300,000 units: 300K --> Electric cars by country In the year of 2021, the total number of electric cars on the world's roads went to about 16.5 million. The sales of electric cars in the first quarter of 2022 went up to 2 million. China has the largest all-electric car fleet in use, with 2.58 million at the end of 2019, more than half (53.9%) of the world's electric car stock. All-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids since 2012. ==Public opinion==

s, while 33% prefer petrol or diesel vehicles. 44% Chinese car buyers, on the other hand, are the most likely to buy an electric car, while 38% of Americans would opt for a hybrid car, 33% would prefer petrol or diesel, while only 29% would go for an electric car. Specifically for the EU, 47% of car buyers over 65 years old are likely to purchase a hybrid vehicle, while 31% of younger respondents do not consider hybrid vehicles a good option. 35% would rather opt for a petrol or diesel vehicle, and 24% for an electric car instead of a hybrid. In the EU, only 13% of the total population do not plan on owning a vehicle at all. Tension between electric vehicles owners and traditional petrol vehicle owners have also influenced public perception. Surveys were taken by the market research firm Ipsos in which they found that belief in EV's environmental benefits among Americans has declined from 63% to 58% over two years. Skepticism has risen mainly among non-EV considerers, who are becoming more united in the belief that EVs are not better for the environment. Public perception of electric vehicles varies across different countries and regions even though there is an overall increase in EV interest worldwide. In Europe, environmental concerns are forcing EV adoption, while in the U.S., cost and range anxiety are major barriers and challenges to the purchasing of EVs. In China, government incentives and infrastructure growth have contributed to higher consumer confidence in EVs. The growing awareness of environmental benefits and government support are influencing public attitudes globally. This is gradually increasing EV adoption rate. Norway is leading the way in EV adoption and consumers are taking advantage of the tax lift from all electric vehicle purchases. 9 out of every 10 cars being sold are electric due to this generous government incentive and Norway's wide spread charging infrastructure. == Government policies and incentives ==

Several national, provincial, and local governments around the world have introduced policies to support the mass-market adoption of plug-in electric vehicles. A variety of policies have been established to provide: financial support to consumers and manufacturers; non-monetary incentives; subsidies for the deployment of charging infrastructure; electric vehicle charging stations in buildings; and long-term regulations with specific targets. Financial incentives for consumers are aiming to make electric car purchase price competitive with conventional cars due to the higher upfront cost of electric vehicles. Depending on battery size, there are one-time purchase incentives such as grants and tax credits; exemptions from import duties; exemptions from road tolls and congestion charges; and exemption of registration and annual fees. Among the non-monetary incentives, there are several perks such allowing plug-in vehicles access to bus lanes and high-occupancy vehicle lanes, free parking and free charging. Several countries, including England and India, are introducing regulations that require electric vehicle charging stations in certain buildings. Some government have also established long term regulatory signals with specific targets such as zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandates, national or regional emission regulations, stringent fuel economy standards, and the phase out of internal combustion engine vehicle sales. While these incentives aim to facilitate a quicker transition from internal combustion cars, they have been criticized by some economists for creating excess deadweight loss in the electric car market, which may partially counteract environmental gains. Some experts have criticized the government incentivization of private electric cars. Transport researchers Israel Fabian and Dick Ettema have found that while government incentives can assist in lowering overall carbon emissions, such incentives lead to unequal distribution of resources which can lead to social exclusion and transportation burdens on certain populations. == Geopolitics ==

The emergence of China as the dominant force in the EV manufacturing sector has made the EV industry a theater of geopolitical strategy and trade friction. China's competitive position, built on vertical integration and overwhelming scale, has forced major economies like the European Union and the U.S. to implement protective trade measures for various reasons, such as dumping, state subsidies, production overcapacity, national security, and forced labor. Critics argue that such allegations are a justification for protectionism. China's competitive advantage is the culmination of a decades-long industrial policy aimed at seizing global leadership in the EV sector. While Western and Japanese automakers largely focused on refining internal combustion engines, Chinese policymakers employed a calculated, systematic approach that prioritized technological independence, manufacturing scale, and demand creation in EVs. It allows Chinese manufacturers to offer affordable EVs, putting pressure on established manufacturers. The export of Chinese EVs has created intense market pressure in Europe and North America, leading to a wave of protectionist measures aimed at shielding domestic industries. The European Commission, following a vote by EU member states on 4 October 2024, to impose definitive countervailing duties (CVDs) on imports of Chinese-manufactured battery electric vehicles. These duties are set to apply by 30 October 2024. These tariffs were levied in response to the competitive distortions alleged to stem from substantial Chinese state subsidies, which are viewed by the EU as potentially violating World Trade Organization (WTO) rules. China launched a WTO complaint in response.  During the first presidency of Donald Trump, the U.S. imposed a stiff 27.5 percent tariff for Chinese-made cars. In May 2024, the U.S. imposed a higher 100% import tariff on Chinese EVs, designed to effectively block Chinese EV imports from significantly impacting the domestic US market. In August 2024, Canada followed the U.S. by announcing a 100% tariff on imported Chinese electric vehicles in addition to other tariffs. As exports to North America and Europe are less profitable, Chinese manufacturers are aggressively focusing their expansion efforts on regions with fewer regulatory hurdles and soaring demand. The manufacturers recalibrated its strategy towards price-sensitive markets like Southeast Asia and Latin America. ==Forecasts==

Total global EV sales in 2030 were predicted to reach 31.1 million by Deloitte. The International Energy Agency predicted that the total global stock of EVs would reach almost 145 million by 2030 under current policies, or 230 million if Sustainable Development policies were adopted. over 700 million people don’t have electricity, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. The World Bank and the African Development Bank plan to provide access to electricity to 300 million people in that region by 2030. At this time, there are just over 20,000 electric vehicles and less than 1,000 charging stations in Africa. However, EV manufacturers have already built or are planning to build production plants in 21 African countries. ==See also==