Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the
English occupation of
Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which ended in failure when Elizabeth's
Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth's intention had been to exchange Le Havre for
Calais, lost to France in January 1558. Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the
war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. She knighted
Francis Drake after
his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of
piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.
Netherlands After the occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant
Dutch rebels against Philip II. This followed the deaths in 1584 of the Queen's allies
William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and the Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the
Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French
Catholic League at
Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother,
Henry III of France, to counter
Spanish domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the
channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The
siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the
Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. The treaty marked the beginning of the
Anglo-Spanish War. The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former suitor, the Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who had set up
a protectorate and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth, on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy". He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the
Dutch States General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester: Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby. This public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain irreversibly undermined Leicester's standing among the Dutch. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader, and the faction-ridden and chaotic situation of Dutch politics led to the failure of the campaign. Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587. The Spanish still controlled the southern provinces of the Netherlands, and the threat of the invasion of England remained. Support for the Dutch nevertheless continued. Leicester's replacement was
Francis Vere who became sergeant major-general of all Elizabeth's troops in the Low Countries by 1589. This was a position he retained during fifteen campaigns with almost unbroken success. Vere enjoyed excellent relations with the Dutch under
Maurice of Nassau, and worked in close co-operation with them to help secure the country for the cause of independence. Vere's troops shattered the myth of Spanish invincibility, and he thus secured Elizabeth's respect and admiration. English support for the Dutch finished after Elizabeth's death, but by that time the Dutch were strong enough to hold their own.
Spain With England at war with Spain in 1585, Francis Drake undertook a year long voyage raiding Spanish ports and ships in the
Caribbean. In 1587 he made a
successful raid on
Cádiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the
Enterprise of England, as Philip II had decided to take the war to England. On 12 July 1588, the
Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. To intercept the Armada, Elizabeth sent her navy led by Francis Drake and
Charles Howard. The armada was defeated by a combination of miscalculation, misfortune, and an attack of English
fire ships off
Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the
Spanish ships to the northeast. The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after
disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the
North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland). Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at
Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in her
Speech to the Troops at Tilbury: , depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. One of three known versions of the "
Armada Portrait". When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at
St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued for another sixteen years. In 1589, the year after the Spanish Armada, Elizabeth sent to Spain the
English Armada or
Counter Armada with 23,375 men and 150 ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and
John Norreys as general. The English fleet suffered a catastrophic defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease and 40 ships sunk or captured. While the English navy kept an eye on the next invasion, it was left for English privateers to see to the hunt for Spanish and Portuguese treasure ships. They would take part in highly lucrative joint stock expeditions to raid and plunder settlements and shipping in the Atlantic and on the Spanish Main. Known as
Elizabethan Sea Dogs; they included the likes of Drake, Hawkins and Raleigh. Elizabeth's court and powerful London merchants were at the forefront of promoting, equipping and financing these expeditions, which were authorized by Elizabeth. She alone would receive nearly a third of the profits, which in addition filled her realm's coffers. One of the most notable prizes was a large and highly valuable Portuguese
Carrack, the
Madre de Deus which was taken
in battle off the Azores in 1592. It was subject to mass theft after arrival in Dartmouth, which angered Elizabeth, but even so the rest of the cargo was still half the wealth of the English treasury at the time. There were a number of failures; the most notable being Drake and Hawkins on a
disastrous expedition to the Caribbean in 1595 during which both died, the news of which shocked Elizabeth. Despite this, a new breed of Sea Dogs came to fruition, the likes of
James Lancaster,
William Parker and the most successful of all
Christopher Newport. Although they failed to capture any of the major treasure ships, Elizabeth's 'Sea Dogs' were highly successful; a strategy of harassment brought in an average of 15% of nation's imports every year throughout the war. In 1596 Elizabeth sent the
second English armada to Cádiz, in the hope of seizing the treasure fleet. Led by her favourite the Earl of Essex, Elizabeth's fleet with Dutch support, succeeded in capturing Cádiz costing the Spanish some 32 ships sunk along with the treasure in them. The victory was hailed as a triumph, and Essex became a hero - his prestige rivalling Elizabeth's. The Queen accused Essex of pilfering Spanish treasure, and questioned why he had dished out knighthoods whilst in Cádiz, reminding him he had no authority to do so. Meanwhile, in revenge for Cádiz, Philip II sent his
second Spanish Armada to England a few months later, but this met with disaster - storms swept away the fleet before it saw sight of England, costing nearly 5,000 men and 40 ships sunk. This, along with the Cádiz raid forced Spain to declare bankruptcy that year. Undeterred, Philip sent the
third Armada in 1597, but near the English coast another storm dispersed the fleet, losing another 28 ships sunk or captured and 2,000 men. Elizabeth awarded Charles Howard the title of the
Earl of Nottingham for his performance during the campaign. The Queen nevertheless was furious with the Earl of Essex who had been away on a
failed expedition to the Azores, accusing him of making England defenceless – their relationship became ever more strained. After the death of Philip II in 1598, his successor Philip III built up his fleet once more and sent the
fourth Spanish Armada to Ireland in 1601 to assist the rebels there. The Spanish this time made landfall and held the town of
Kinsale for three months but following the defeat of the rebels outside the town the Spanish were forced to surrender their entire force along the Southwest Irish coast. This defeat weakened Spanish resolve in the war against England; both sides were nevertheless exhausted and peace was signed between England and Spain with the
Treaty of London in 1604, a year after Elizabeth's death.
Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain: Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory".
France struck 1593 identifying Elizabeth as "
by the Grace of God Queen of England,
France, and Ireland" When the Protestant
Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent early English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective.
Peregrine Bertie, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1590 following the failure of the
Siege of Paris. The following year, John Norreys, led 3,000 men to campaign in Brittany, which despite
victory at Quenelec in June ended inconclusively. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in
besieging Rouen which Norreys joined. Essex however accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592, and Henry abandoned the siege in April. As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant". Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. Elizabeth dithered, and in Norreys' absence in May 1592, a Catholic League and Spanish army almost destroyed the remains of his
army at Craon, north-west France. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. In March 1593, Henry converted to Catholicism in Paris to secure his hold on the French crown. Elizabeth was distraught and shocked at this move, and she resented any further attempts by Henry to win her over and ordered all of her forces home. Despite this, the Catholic leaguers did not trust Henry and still opposed him - their Spanish allies meanwhile continued to
campaign in Brittany and advanced on the major port of
Brest. King Philip of Spain was intent on establishing advanced bases in western France from which his rebuilt navy could constantly threaten England. Norreys wrote to Elizabeth warning her about this threat - and after some hesitation saw the danger and so sent another force in 1594. Norreys with 4,000 men worked with his French counterpart
Jean VI d'Aumont. This time success was achieved; after taking a number of towns, they laid siege to an encroaching Spanish fort near Brest
which was overrun and destroyed. This was a decisive victory ending the threat, and not long after the Catholic league collapsed. Elizabeth hailed Norreys a hero, but then ordered him back to England along with his troops. In 1595 Henry
declared war on Spain and wanted England to form an alliance with France. Elizabeth however was not interested, owing to her mistrust of Henry and the fear that France was becoming more dominant. The Spanish however
captured Calais in 1596, and with Spain now in sight of England once more, Elizabeth relented –
the triple alliance was formed along with the Dutch Republic. Elizabeth however still hesitated, attempting to barter for either Boulogne or an indemnity in money, the latter of which was agreed. When Spanish forces seized
Amiens in March 1597, Elizabeth sent a force of some 4,200 men under
Thomas Baskerville to Picardy, joining Henry's forces. The Anglo-French force arrived, then
besieged Amiens and drove off a relief army. The town then surrendered, following which French overtures for peace with Spain began. Henry wanted Elizabeth to be part of this peace but she refused, reminding him of the alliance with the Dutch. Henry ultimately went behind Elizabeth's back to sign the
peace with Spain at Vervins. She thus accused the French king of 'perfidy and double-dealing'.
Ireland chieftain
O'Neale and the other
kerns kneel to
Henry Sidney in submission. Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile, and in places virtually autonomous, Irish population that adhered to Catholicism and was willing to defy her authority and plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. In the course of a series of uprisings, Crown forces pursued
scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in
Munster led by
Gerald FitzGerald, Earl of Desmond, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet and colonist
Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same". Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated, but she or her commanders showed no remorse when force and bloodshed served their authoritarian purpose. Between 1593 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland during the
Nine Years' War, a revolt that took place at the height of hostilities with
Spain, who backed the rebel leader,
Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent
Robert Devereux to put the revolt down. To her frustration, he made little progress and returned to England in defiance of her orders. He was replaced by
Charles Blount, who within three years defeated the rebels who were supported by the Spanish. The decisive battle took place at
Kinsale in 1602; Elizabeth lauded the victory, hailing Blount a hero. The financial cost of the Irish war however was considerable and Elizabeth's realm only just avoided bankruptcy. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603 at the
Treaty of Mellifont, a few days after Elizabeth's death. ==Overseas trade==