Economy of Europe

Pre-1945: Industrial growth Prior to World War II, Europe's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry. World War I briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run-up to World War II Europe recovered well and was competing with the ever-increasing economic might of the United States of America. However, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe's industrial centres and much of the continent's infrastructure was laid to waste. 1945–1992: The Cold War era Following World War II, European governments were in tatters. Many non-Socialist European governments moved to integrate their economies, laying the foundation for what would become the European Union. This meant a huge increase in shared infrastructure and cross-border trade. Whilst these European states rapidly improved their economies, by the 1980s, the state-run economies of the COMECON group were struggling, mainly due to the massive cost of the Cold War. The GDP and the living standards of Central and Eastern European states were lower than in other parts of Europe. The European Community grew from 6 original members following World War II, to 12 in this period. Average living standards in Europe rose significantly during the post-war period, as characterised by these findings: Per capita private consumption (PPSs) in 1980 • Luxembourg: 5495 • France: 5395 • Germany, Federal Republic: 5319 • Belgium: 5143 • Denmark: 4802 • Netherlands: 4792 • United Kingdom: 4343 • Italy: 4288 • Ireland: 3029 Per capita personal disposable income (PPSs) in 1980 • Belgium: 6202 • France: 6044 • Germany, Federal Republic: 5661 • Netherlands: 5490 • Italy: 5378 • Denmark: 4878 • United Kingdom (UK): 4698 Rise of the European Union When the 'Eastern Bloc' dissolved around 1992, these states struggled to adapt to free-market systems. There was, however, a huge variation in degrees of success, with Central European states such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland adapting reasonably quickly, whilst states that used to form the USSR such as Russia, Belarus and Ukraine struggled to reform their crumbling infrastructures. Many developed European countries were quick to develop economic ties with fellow European states, where democracy was reintroduced. After the Revolutions of 1989, states in Central Europe and the Baltic states dealt with change, former Yugoslavian republics descended into war and Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are still struggling with their old systems. Europe's largest economy, Germany, struggled upon unification in 1991 with former communist German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, influenced by the Soviet Union. The GDR had much of its industrial infrastructure removed during the Cold War, and for many years unified Germany struggled to build infrastructure in the former East Germany up to the level of former West Germany. Peace did not come to Yugoslavia for a decade, and by 2003, there were still many NATO and EU peacekeeping troops present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Kosovo. War severely hampered economic growth, with only Slovenia making any real progress in the 1990s. The European economy was affected by the September 11 Attacks in the United States in 2001, with Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United Kingdom being the worst hit. But, in 2002/2003, the economy began to recover from the attacks in US. The total size of the economy of Europe was by this time dominated by the EU, a union with then 15 of Europe's states as full members. EU membership was seen as something to aspire to, and the EU gave significant support and aid to those Central and Eastern European states willing to work towards achieving economies that met the entry criteria. During this time, 12 of the 15 members of the EU became part of the Eurozone, a currency union launched in 1999, whereby each member uses a shared currency, the euro, which replaced their former national currencies. Three states chose to remain outside the Eurozone and continue with their own currencies, namely Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom. 2004–2007: EU expansion In early 2004, 10 mostly former communist states joined the EU in its biggest ever expansion, enlarging the union to 25 members, with another eight making associated trade agreements. The acceding countries are bound to join the Eurozone and adopt the common currency euro in the future. The process includes the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, of which some of these countries are already part. Most European economies are in very good shape, and the continental economy reflects this. Conflict and unrest in some of the former Yugoslavia states and in the Caucasus states are hampering economic growth in those states, however. In response to the massive EU growth, in 2005 the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, (including both the European and Asian states). Twelve of the 15 signed up, with the three Baltic states deciding to align themselves with the EU. Despite this, the three Caucasus states have said in the past they would one day consider applying for EU membership, particularly Georgia. This is also true of Ukraine since the Orange Revolution. 2008–2015: Eurozone expansion and European debt crisis in 2008 and negative interest rates, 2014-2022 Slovenia became the first republic from the former Yugoslavia as well as the first formerly communist nation overall to adopt the EU currency, the euro, in 2007, followed by Malta and Cyprus in 2008, and Slovakia in 2009. In 2011, Estonia became the first republic from the former Soviet Union to adopt the euro, followed by Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. In 2013, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union, and adopted the euro on 1 January 2023. In 2026, Bulgaria adopted the euro. The 2008 financial crisis, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority of the European economies, which was a precedent to the euro area crisis, which threatened the collapse of economies in the south, particularly Greece, Portugal and Spain. Having also been hit hard, Ireland exited the crisis in mid-2013. Meanwhile, increased bailouts of the International Monetary Fund and European Central Bank alleviated somehow the situation in the debt-stricken nations, with Central and East European economies led by Germany escaping the worst of the 2010s debt crisis. By the mid-2010s, 2014–2015, Ireland was recovering at a steady pace having graduated from the bail out programme successfully. The Eurozone as a whole had become more stable, however problems in Greece and slow recovery in Italy and in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) continue in keeping growth in the Euro area to a minimum. Germany continues to lead Europe in stability and growth, while both the UK and Ireland are seeing strong growth of 3–4%. Unemployment in Ireland reducing at the fastest levels in Europe, expected to reach 8% by 2016, down from double that in 2011. The Czech Republic and Germany have constantly the lowest unemployment rate in the EU. Growth outlook in general remains optimistic for Europe in the future. With positive growth expected across the Euro area. Although uncertainty still surrounds Greece and debt payments in the Greek state, at present things appear stable. European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestlé from Switzerland. Companies like HSBC, Vodafone, TotalEnergies and BNP Paribas have all also sled in their respective industries against American and Asian competitors. In addition, former technologic heavyweights like Nokia, Ericsson and Alcatel have also declined against evolving American companies in the Silicon Valley. While the bottom 80% of the European population's income has increased by an estimated 40% on average since 1980, the top 1%'s pre-tax income has more than doubled. Employment in the European Union reached a new high in 2019. While many social and economic indicators have converged across EU regions, the 2008 financial crisis resulted in a sharp divergence in unemployment rates. Recently, these ranged from less than 2% in Prague to more than 20% in parts of Greece, southern Spain, and southern Italy. Rapid technological change also had an effect on medium-skilled workers resulting in more low-skilled jobs being taken up. 2016–present: Brexit, COVID pandemic and Russian invasion of Ukraine In 2016, the United Kingdom became the first nation to vote to leave the European Union since its modern iteration in the post-Cold War era, reducing the number of the said bloc's membership down to 27 member states for the time being. U.K.'s exit prolonged the country's ongoing economic recession beyond the COVID pandemic era in the 2020s decade. In 2022, the Russian war on Ukraine prompted both Ukraine and Moldova to be granted immediate candidate status by the European Union for economic and security reasons, with Bosnia and Herzegovina and Georgia following suit by the end of the following year. In 2024, Finland and Sweden became the newest members of the NATO. Croatia and Bulgaria joined the Eurozone after officially adopting the euro by 2023 and 2026, respectively. == Regional variation ==

(PPP) per capita (USD), Credit Suisse Global Wealth Datebook 2021 European countries with a long history of trade, a free market system, and a high level of development in the previous century are generally in the north and west of the continent. They tend to be wealthier and more stable than countries congregated in the European East and South, even though the gap is converging, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, due to higher growth rates. The poorest states are those that just emerged from communism, fascist dictatorships and civil wars, namely those of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, with some exceptions. Former Western Bloc itself presents some living standards and development differences, with the greatest contrast seen between the Nordics (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland) and Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy. Below is a map of European countries by gross national income per capita. High income in blue ($12,616 or more, as defined by the World Bank), upper middle income in green ($4,086 – $12,615) and lower middle income ($1,036 – $4,085) in yellow. A survey conducted in 2021 found that many businesses cut back on operations as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, resulting in a significant decline in revenue and job changes. Due to the pandemic, over 40% of the businesses surveyed had to close temporarily. Sales in the region declined by roughly 25% on average, but there was substantial variation within sub-regions. One out of every five businesses launched or grew their online business or distribution of products and services, while one out of every four businesses started or increased their remote operations. The pandemic has also hastened corporate transformation, with over 30% of companies altering or transforming their output as a result of it. Chemical manufacturers and wholesalers were the first to respond, with one in three expanding online business activity, beginning or boosting delivery of products and services, increasing remote employment, and changing manufacturing. Economic activity decreased by almost 4% in the majority of sub-regions in 2020, which was similar to the global average of 3.2%. However, the variance between nations is prominent. The high infection and mortality rates of the pandemic in countries in the Western Balkans, the Eastern Neighbourhood, and Central and Eastern Europe meant they faced deeper recessions. European Union The European Union has the second largest economy in the world, behind that of the United States. Trade within the Union accounts for more than one-third of the world total. The European Union or EU is a supranational union of European states, the most recent acceding member being Croatia, which became full member on 1 July 2013. It has many functions, the most important being the establishment and maintenance of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 21 of the member states), a Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy. The European Union also undertakes various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states. The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the Member States to the EU. European Free Trade Association The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as an alternative for European states that did not wish to join the European Union, creating a trade bloc with fewer central powers. The EFTA member states as of 1992 were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In 2014 only four countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, remained members of EFTA, as the other members have gradually left to join the EU. European Economic Area The European Economic Area (EEA) came into being on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU). It was designed to enable EFTA countries to participate in the European Single Market without having to join the EU. In a referendum, Switzerland chose not to participate in the EEA (although it is linked to the European Union by bilateral agreements similar in content to the EEA agreement), so the current members are the EU states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein. A Joint Committee consisting of the non EU members plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU Law to the non EU members. Commonwealth of Independent States The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a organization consisting of 11 of the 12 successors to the Soviet Union. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was founded by an Agreement on the creation the Commonwealth of Independent States signed on 8 December 1991 by Russia, Belarus and Ukraine. According to Article 7, the High Contracting Parties indicate that through common coordinating institutions, their joint activities will consist in coordinating foreign policy activities, cooperation in the formation and development of a common economic space, common European and Eurasian markets, in the field of customs policy, in the field of customs policy, in the development of transport and communication systems, cooperation in the field of environmental protection, migration policy and the fight against organized crime. On 24 September 1993, at a meeting of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Council of Heads of State in Moscow, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan signed the Treaty on the creation of an Economic Union which reinforces by an international agreement the intention to create an economic union through the step-by-step creation of a free trade area, a customs union and conditions for the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor. All these countries have ratified the Treaty and it entered into force on January 14, 1994. On 15 April 1994, at a meeting of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Council of Heads of State in Moscow, all 12 post-Soviet states signed the international Agreement on the Establishment of a Free Trade Area in order to move towards the creation of an economic union. Article 17 also confirmed the intention to conclude a free trade agreement in services. In October 2011, the new Commonwealth of Independent States Treaty on Free Trade Area was signed by eight of the eleven CIS prime ministers; Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine at a meeting in St. Petersburg. After 11 years of negotiations, on 8 June 2023, in Sochi, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan signed the Commonwealth of Independent States Agreement on Free Trade in Services, Establishment, Operations and Investment to partly integrate Uzbekistan and Tajikistan on the common standards of the WTO (General Agreement on Trade in Services) and the EAEU (some provisions were borrowed from EAEU law) even without their membership in the WTO (Uzbekistan) or the EAEU (Uzbekistan and Tajikistan). The Information and Analytical Department of the CIS Executive Committee notes in October 2023 that at the moment a kind of pyramid of integration entities has developed in the CIS countries, differing in the depth of economic integration (multi-speed integration), and the implementation of free trade agreements and a number of other documents will lead to the formation of a full-fledged common economic space within the Commonwealth. Within its participant countries, state borders will cease to be an obstacle to the free movement of goods, services, labor and capital. On 6 March 2024, representatives of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and the CIS Executive Committee finalized the work on updating the Concept of Phased Formation of a Common Labor Market and Regulation of Labor Force Migration. On 29 November 2024, the CIS finally adopted an updated Concept for the phased formation of a common labor market and migration regulation. In the International Comparison Program 2021, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) region was linked through the standard global core list approach, unlike in ICP 2017. Based on the results, the World Bank announced that in 2021 Russia was the world's 4th largest economy (int$5.7 trillion and 3.8 percent of the world) and the largest economy in Europe and Central Asia when measured in PPP terms (15 percent of the regional total), followed by Germany (13 percent of the regional economy). Central European Free Trade Agreement The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade bloc of: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) on behalf of Kosovo. == Currency and central banks ==

Eurozone Non-Eurozone currencies == Stock exchanges ==

Agriculture and fishing . Italy is the world's largest wine producer (22% of the global market), as well as the country with the widest variety of indigenous grapevine in the world. Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent. The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidizes their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade. This means because of the protectionist nature of the CAP, agricultural products from developing countries are rendered uncompetitive in both Europe (an important export market for developing countries) and on their home markets (as European agricultural products are dumped on developing countries' markets with help from European agricultural subsidies). This controversy surrounds every system of agricultural subsidies (the United States' policy of subsidizing farmers is also controversial). The CAP is also controversial because 40% of the EU's budget is spent on it, and because of the overproduction caused by it. The Common Fisheries Policy is surrounded by an extensive system of rules (mainly consisting of quotas) to protect the environment from overfishing. Despite these rules, the cod is becoming increasingly rare in the North Sea resulting in drastic shortages in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Strict fishing rules are the main reason for Norway and Iceland to stay out of the European Union (and out of the Common Fisheries Policy). Price guarantees and subsidizations of fishermen are implemented in the same way as agricultural subsidies are. Bluefin tuna is also a problem. Global stocks of the species are overfished with extinction in the wild a possibility in the near future. This also has the negative effect of threatening their traditional, natural predators. Manufacturing , by Volkswagen, assembly, Mannheim state museum of technology and labour, 2008, Germany, the largest manufacturing economy in Europe. Europe has a thriving manufacturing sector, with a large part of the world's industrial production taking place in Europe. Most of the continent's industries are concentrated in the 'Blue Banana' (covering Southern England, the Benelux, western Germany, eastern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy). However, because of the higher wage level and hence production costs, Europe is suffering from deindustrialization and offshoring in the labour-intensive manufacturing sectors. This means that manufacturing has become less important and that jobs are moved to regions with cheaper labour costs (mainly China and Central and Eastern Europe). Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850 but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890–1900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment. Of the top 500 largest corporations by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2024), 123 have their headquarters in Europe. Eighty-eight are located in the EU, 17 in the United Kingdom, 11 in Switzerland, five in Russia, one in Turkey, one in Norway. With 29 companies that are part of the world's biggest 500 companies, Germany was in 2024 the most represented European country in the 2024 Fortune Global 500, ahead of France (24 companies) and the UK (17). With 62 companies that are part of the world's biggest 2000 companies, France was again in 2023 the most represented European country in the 2023 Forbes Global 2000, ahead of the UK (60 companies) and Germany (50). Investing and banking 's main building in Frankfurt, Germany. Frankfurt is a financial centre of Europe. Europe has a well-developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with London being the largest. The financial sector of the Eurozone is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money in banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards. According to the Global Financial Centres Index, , four European cities rank among the 20 largest financial centres in the world: London (2nd), Zurich (14th), Frankfurt (15th), and Paris (17th). European banks are amongst the largest and most profitable in the world, such as HSBC, BNP Paribas, Crédit Agricole, Grupo Santander, Société Générale, Barclays, Groupe BPCE, Deutsche Bank, Intesa Sanpaolo, Lloyds Banking Group, ING Group, Crédit Mutuel, UBS and UniCredit. At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the economy, aggregate investment levels fell in the second quarter of 2020. The corporate sector was the most responsible for this reduction. Investment appeared to be increasing in early 2021, coinciding with the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions. Mid-2021, the European Union's gross saving rate was still 18% of gross disposable income, higher above the average of 11-13%, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. 63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19. Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers. Companies that are located in the countries under the European cohesion policy are less likely to spend money on the types of intangible assets, like R&D or training. Businesses in cohesion regions tend to concentrate their investments more on purchasing real estate, machinery, and other tangible assets. Only 28% of investments are made in intangible activity in areas considered less developed, compared to 35% in transition areas and 39% in more developed areas. In all regions, bank loans are the most prevalent type of external financing. In less developed regions, they account for 49% of finance, in more developed regions, 58%, and in transitional regions, 69%. Grants make up a larger portion of the financing in less developed areas. Intangible assets (R&D, software, training, and business processes) were invested in by firms in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe countries at a lower rate (24%) in 2022 than the EU average (37%). The proportion of enterprises aiming to prioritize innovation in new goods and services was higher in these regions (27%) than in the EU (24%) and the US (21%). Manufacturing enterprises (36%) and big firms (31%), in particular, have innovation as an investment priority. Among CESEE enterprises, Slovenia (38%) and the Czech Republic (37%), are the most likely to prioritize innovation. Europe's level of productive investment has lagged behind that of the United States - by two percentage points of GDP annually since 2010, according to European Commission data. In comparison to 2021, there is a significant increase in the proportion of enterprises citing energy prices as a limitation to investment (87%), particularly those considering it as a substantial obstacle (63%).''' The transition to cleaner energy is seen as a danger to investments by 41% of energy-intensive manufacturers in Europe, thus affecting all investment plans. This is compared to 31% of enterprises in non-energy heavy industries. For future investment plans, European energy-intensive manufacturers and firms are more interested in climate investments than non-energy-intensive enterprises, with 48% now investing and 57% planning to invest. Infrastructure enterprises were somewhat more likely than other firms to invest insufficiently in 2022 according to survey data. The same was true for SMEs (21%) against large businesses (15%). Firms in Lithuania (28%) and Latvia (30%) are the most likely to believe they have invested insufficiently during the previous three years. The proportion of enterprises that believe they have overinvested was largest (but still minor) in Hungary (7%), Bulgaria (7%), and the Czech Republic (6%).''' In 2022 - 2023, EU businesses were found increasingly unhappy with the cost of credit as monetary policy tightened and external finance conditions deteriorated. This dissatisfaction is at more than 14% in 2023, compared to 5% in 2022. In 2023, Austrian enterprises are the most likely to grow stock and inventory, while Romanian firms are the most likely to invest in digital inventory and input tracking. Romania has the largest proportion of importers lowering the proportion of goods/services imported from abroad, as well as the highest proportion of enterprises diversifying or growing the number of countries from which they import. Also in the same year, 80% of EU firms were profitable, which was 2 percentage points higher than the historical average. Firms that achieved profits of at least 10% of their turnover were 8% more likely to increase their investment compared to firms that only broke even. Policy support and financial reserves have played a crucial role in protecting and maintaining corporate investment. Despite the energy crisis that started in 2022, firms were able to meet their investment expectations, thanks to the support and buffers in place. In the previous six months, most parent banks in Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Europe nations have maintained their level of exposure. Major players in Serbia and Romania engaged in some mergers and acquisitions activities. Banks foresee an increase in non-performing loans (NPLs), which would hit the retail and business sectors in virtually all countries (excluding Albania). Europe in particular suffers from a lack of funding for more mature scale-up operations. Financing for these operations is six to eight times higher in the United States (in dollars). Corporate investment among EU countries varies significantly due to distinct national factors. The sectoral breakdown of aggregate investment is not yet accessible for all EU members, even for early 2023. In some European nations, real corporate investment increased by 5% or more by early 2023, while in others it remained stagnant or far lower than pre-pandemic levels. A main point in 2023 has been that EU enterprises embraced modern digital technology and were able to close an 11 point deficit with the United States in their usage of those technology. In the EU, less firms were expecting to increase investment in 2024, falling to a net balance of 7%. European businesses invest 37% of their capital in intangible assets, prioritizing them over physical assets like land, buildings, and infrastructure. Only 14% of European firms focus on these physical assets, while in the US, 24% of companies focus on the same assets. 26% of EU firms also invest in expansion. Approximately 20% of parent banks in Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Europe anticipate asset sales or strategic restructuring at the group level. Banking groups in the region are focusing on deleveraging by either increasing or maintaining stable loan-to-deposit ratios. and associated freight. The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the Industrial Revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease. Rail transport Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and/or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross-border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to €73 billion in 2005. Air transport Despite an extensive road and rail network, most long-distance travel within Europe is by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe's many large international airports. London is the second busiest airport in the world by number of international passengers, only trailing Dubai. The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems. Tech industry Historically, Europe lagged in producing high-net-worth tech founders, and it remains unlikely to displace the United States as the global tech hegemon. Nevertheless, in the 2020s, the European technology sector has undergone a transformation, and Europe has become increasingly competitive in climate tech, defense tech, and deep tech. As of 2026, Europe accounts for six of the world's 100 most valuable technology companies. Between 2015 and 2025, European venture capital investment rose from $22 billion to $85 billion, and the region's share of global VC grew from 12% to 16%. In contrast, American VC investment reached $339 billion in 2025. Within Europe, there has been a significant pivot toward capital-intensive sectors; deep tech's share of total European VC grew from 19% in 2021 to 36% in 2025. The European Commission is currently pursuing the unification of capital markets to streamline funding for startups. The United Kingdom, France, and Germany have adjusted pension regulations to permit greater investment in high-risk technology ventures. Additionally, the EU is exploring protectionist measures, such as encouraging member states to prioritize domestic tech startups in government procurement. According to The Economist, the emergence of multi-billion-dollar valuations in Europe suggests that the prospect of a trillion-dollar European tech firm is no longer improbable. == Trade relations ==

Europe is one of the world’s largest trading entities, with Germany, France and the United Kingdom serving as the primary economic powerhouses in terms of both exports and imports. Germany is Europe's largest exporter and importer and the third-largest exporter globally, with over $2 trillion in exports in 2022. Germany is also a major importer, with $1.5 trillion in imports in 2022, reflecting its role as a key player in global supply chains. France is the second-largest exporter in Europe, with over $1 trillion in exports in 2022. The United Kingdom is the third-largest exporter in Europe, with over $1 trillion in exports in 2022. The United Kingdom is also a significant importer, with $800 billion in imports in 2022, the third largest importer in Europe. Japan, Russia and non-member European states. EU members are represented by a single official at the WTO. The EU is involved in a few minor trade disputes. It had a long running dispute with the USA of allegedly unfair subsidies the US government gives to several companies, such as Boeing. The EU has a long running ban prohibiting arms trade with the Chinese. The EU issued a brief accusing Microsoft of predatory and monopolistic practices. On 27 July 2025, the United States and the European Union concluded a trade agreement, imposing a 15% tariff on European exports to the United States. European states committed to $750 billion in energy purchases and $600 billion in additional investments in the United States. == See also ==