India The literature of
Ancient India is richly endowed with contributions to the development of a
sui generis theory of rhetoric. In ancient India, around
700 BCE, public debates by Indian rhetors on the topic of religion were a popular form of entertainment. The
Vedic hymns, composed over three millennia ago, demonstrate a refined sense of rhetoric possessed by the intellectual stratum of the society, as seen in their effective employment of similes. The
Buddhist tradition of India places emphasis on the value of engaging in calm and humorous discourse. It was understood that
Chinese rhetoric was part of Chinese philosophy, which schools taught focusing on two concepts: "Wen" (rhetoric); and "Zhi" (thoughtful content). the first known writing on oratory is 2,000 years old from
ancient Greece. This work elaborates on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators.
Aristotle, one of the first oratory teachers to use definitive rules and models, believed that successful speakers combined, to varying degrees, three qualities in their speech: reasoning, which he called Logos; credentials, which he called Ethos; and emotion, which he called Pathos. Aristotle's work became an essential part of a
liberal arts education during the
Middle Ages and the
Renaissance. The
classical antiquity works by the ancient Greeks capture how they taught and developed the art of public speaking thousands of years ago. In classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of
composition and speech delivery, both critical skills for use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke for themselves rather than having professionals, such as modern lawyers, speak for them. Any
citizen who wished to succeed in court, politics, or social life had to learn public speaking techniques. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called
Sophists, who taught paying students how to speak effectively using their methods. Separately from the Sophists,
Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle developed their theories of public speaking, teaching these principles to students interested in learning rhetorical skills. Plato founded
The Academy and Aristotle founded
The Lyceum to teach these skills.
Demosthenes was a well-known orator from Athens. After his father died when he was 7, he had three legal guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Theryppides. His inspiration for public speaking came from learning that his guardians had robbed him of the money his father left for his education. His first public speech was in the court proceeding he brought against his three guardians. After that, Demosthenes continued to practice public speaking. He is known for sticking pebbles into his mouth to improve his pronunciation, talking while running so that he would not lose his breath, and practicing speaking in front of a mirror to improve his delivery. When Philip II, the ruler of Macedon, tried to conquer the Greeks, Demosthenes made a speech called
Kata Philippou A. In this speech, he spoke about why he opposed Philip II as a threat to all of Greece. This was the first of several speeches known as the Philippics. He made other speeches known as the
Olynthiacs. Both series of speeches favored independence and rallied Athenians against Philip II.
Rome , an orator during the
Roman Empire, addressing the
Roman Senate, depicted in
Cicero Denounces Catiline, an 1889 fresco by
Cesare Maccari During the political rise of the
Roman Republic, Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking. Instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises (
progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both
forensic and
deliberative genres. In
Latin, rhetoric was heavily influenced by
Cicero, an orator during the
Roman Empire, and emphasized a broad education in all areas of the
humanities. Other areas of rhetorical study included the use of wit and humor, the
appeal to the listener's emotions, and the use of
digressions. Oratory in the
Roman Empire, though less central to political life than during the Republic, remained important in law and entertainment. Famous orators were celebrities in ancient Rome, becoming wealthy and prominent in society. The ornate Latin style was the primary form of oration through the mid-20th century. After
World War II and the increased use of film and television, the Latin oration style began to fall out of favor. This cultural change likely had to do with the rise of the
scientific method and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing. Even today's formal oratory is much less ornate than in the Classical Era. == Theorists ==