in Pas-de-CalaisInhabited since
prehistoric times, the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region has always been a strategic (and hence a highly fought-over) region in Europe. French President
Charles de Gaulle, who was born in
Lille, called the region a "fatal avenue" through which invading armies repeatedly passed. Over the centuries, it was conquered in turn by the
Celtic Belgae, the
Romans, the Germanic
Franks, England, the
Spanish and
Austrian Netherlands, and the
Dutch Republic. After the final French
annexation in the early 18th century, much of the region was again occupied by Germany during the
First and
Second World Wars. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the Roman practice of
co-opting Germanic tribes to provide military and defense services along the route from
Boulogne to
Cologne created a
Germanic–
Romance linguistic border in the region that persisted until the 8th century. By the 9th century, most inhabitants north of Lille spoke a dialect of
Middle Dutch, while the inhabitants to the south spoke a variety of Romance dialects. This linguistic border is still evident today in the place names of the region. Beginning in the 9th century, the linguistic border began a steady move to the north and the east. By the end of the 13th century, the linguistic border had shifted to the river
Lys in the south and
Cap Gris-Nez in the west. During the
Middle Ages, the Pas-de-Calais department comprised the
County of Boulogne and the
County of Artois, while the Nord department was mostly made up of the southern portions of the
County of Flanders and the
County of Hainaut. Boulogne, Artois, and Flanders were
fiefs of the French crown, while
Hainaut and (after 1493)
Flanders were within the
Holy Roman Empire.
Calais was an English possession from 1347 to 1558, when it was recovered by the French throne. In the 15th century, all of the territories, except Calais, were united under the rule of the
Dukes of Burgundy, along with other territories in northern France and areas in what is now
Belgium,
Luxembourg, and the
Netherlands. With the death of the Burgundian duke
Charles the Bold in 1477, the
Boulonnais and
Artois were seized by the French crown, while Flanders and Hainaut were inherited by Charles's daughter
Marie. Shortly thereafter, in 1492, Artois was ceded back to Marie's son
Philip the Handsome, as part of an attempt to keep Philip's father, Emperor
Maximilian I, neutral in French King
Charles VIII's prospective invasion of Italy. Thus, most of the territories of what is now Nord-Pas-de-Calais were reunited with the Burgundian inheritance, which had passed through Marie's marriage to the
House of Habsburg. These territories formed an integral part of the
Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands as they were defined during the reign of Philip's son,
Emperor Charles V, and passed to Charles's son,
Philip II of Spain. During the
Italian Wars, much of the conflict between France and Spain occurred in the region. When
the Netherlands revolted against Spanish rule, beginning in 1566, the territories in what is now Nord-Pas-de-Calais were those most loyal to the throne and proved the base from which the
Duke of Parma was able to bring the whole southern part of the Netherlands back under Spanish control. It was also a base for Spanish support of
French Catholics in the
French Wars of Religion. During the wars between France and Spain in the 17th century (
1635–
1659,
1667–1668,
1672–1678,
1688–1697), these territories became the principal seat of conflict between the two states, and French control over the area was gradually established. Beginning with the annexation of Artois in 1659, most of the current
Nord department territory had been acquired by the time of the
Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678. The current borders were mostly established by the time of the
Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. The area, previously divided among the French provinces of
Flanders, Artois, and
Picardy, was divided into its two present departments following the
French Revolution of 1789. Under
Napoleon, the French boundary was extended to include all of Flanders and present-day Belgium until the
Congress of Vienna in 1815 restored the original French boundary. During the 19th century, the region underwent major
industrialisation and became one of the leading industrial regions of France, second only to
Alsace-Lorraine. Nord-Pas-de-Calais was barely touched by the
Franco-Prussian War of 1870; the war actually helped it to cement its leading role in French industry due to the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. However, it suffered catastrophic damage in the two World Wars of the 20th century.
Prehistory des Bonettes,
Sailly-en-Ostrevent The earliest evidence of man's presence in the region dates from the
Pleistocene to the
Middle Ages. Evidence of early human presence includes
bifaces dating back to around 700,000 BC found in
Wimereux and 500,000 BC in
Quiévy. During the Pleistocene, human activity was intermittent due to the harsh climate caused by expanding Nordic glaciers. Occupation sites are noted from around 60,000 BC in
Marcoing and 50,000–40,000 BC After the last
Ice age, the region, now covered in forests, saw the emergence of
hunter-gatherer societies using
microliths for hunting. Additionally, the Neolithic era left behind
megalithic structures, such as
dolmens and
menhirs, which were likely used for religious purposes, though their exact functions remain unclear.
Gallia Belgica and the Roman Empire The Gallic War in 56 BC: After defeating the
Atrebates and
Nervians at the
battle of Sabis, Caesar continued his conquests towards the
North Sea. During the
Gallic War in 56 BC,
Julius Caesar expanded his conquests toward the
North Sea after defeating the
Atrebates and
Nervians at the
Battle of Sabis. The Belgians, a collective of various tribes such as the
Menapiens,
Morins,
Atrébates, and
Nervians, had settled in the region between the
5th and
1st centuries BC. These tribes, described by
Caesar, were not homogeneous and occupied different parts of the land. Settlements were mainly
hamlets around farms, with few fortified camps like
Etrun. The Roman invasion began in
57 BC, leading to significant battles, including a
decisive one on the banks of the
Sabis. Despite initial resistance, by
50 BC, Gaul-Belgium was conquered and remained under military occupation until
27 BC.
Pax Romana Following their victory, the Romans implemented policies of pacification and Romanization, transforming the region administratively and economically. They established numerous cities, incorporating ancient
Celtic tribes into the prosperous Roman province of
Belgium. Key cities included Bagacum Nerviorum (
Bavay), Namur (
Aduatuca), Castellum Menapiorum (
Cassel), Nemetocenna (
Arras), and Tervanna (
Thérouanne). The region flourished through agriculture, particularly sheep breeding and wheat cultivation, and the development of a sophisticated road network known as the "
Brunehaut causeways". This network facilitated trade within the empire, allowing for the import and export of various goods, including ceramics, pottery, wine, olive oil, linen cloth, and ham. Vici (hamlets) emerged along these routes, and many modern communes in the
Scarpe and
Escaut valleys trace their origins to
Gallo-Roman settlements.
Decline and barbarian invasions By the end of the 1st century, Germanic tribes began encroaching on the region, leading to periods of pillaging and instability. The
Franks crossed the
Rhine in 253–254 and again between 259 and 263, followed by the
Alamanni in 275. During brief periods of peace, new capitals like
Tournai and
Cambrai emerged, replacing older ones such as
Cassel and
Bavay. The region also saw the initial stages of
Christianization, although it remained limited until the
3rd and 5th centuries. In 406, a frozen Rhine allowed a flood of barbarian groups, including the
Franks and Germans driven by the
Huns, to invade, ultimately leading to the collapse of the remaining Roman authority in the region.
The Frankish kingdoms Christianization in the Merovingian period was founded around 630. During the
Merovingian period, the
Salian Franks initially maintained their
pagan beliefs, unlike other Germanic tribes who converted to
Arianism.
Clovis's conversion to
Nicene Christianity was significant as it aligned with the remaining Roman Empire's religion, providing
sacred legitimacy. This period saw a renewal of urbanization and the establishment of ecclesiastical authorities.
Vaast became bishop of
Arras and
Cambrai early in the century. By 511, however, the region was not sufficiently Christianized to be represented at the
Council of Orleans.
Between Neustria and Austrasia The
Merovingians did not have a concept of statehood; instead, fiefdoms were private domains. After Clovis's death, his kingdom was divided among his sons, leading to dynastic struggles, notably between queens
Brunehaut and
Frédégonde. Around 630 AD, during
Dagobert's reign, significant Christianization efforts began with the establishment of numerous monasteries, such as
Marchiennes,
Condé, and
Maroilles. These monasteries, supported by the Frankish aristocracy, played crucial roles in land development and extending royal power. Coastal areas saw less interest from the Franks, with the first bishop,
Audomar (Saint Omer), arriving only in the 6th century.
The Scheldt as a new frontier Treaty of Verdun The
Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided
Charlemagne's empire into three kingdoms, establishing the
Scheldt River as the natural boundary between
West Francia and
Middle Francia. This division split what is now the
Nord département into two parts: one under what would become France and the other under the
Holy Roman Empire. This new border marked a significant shift in territorial and political dynamics in the region.
Battle of Bouvines , created in the 13th century In 1180, Isabelle de Hainaut's marriage to
Philippe Auguste brought the Artois region to the French crown. The complex succession issues surrounding the
County of Flanders led to a coalition against the King of France, involving the Emperor, the King of England, and the
Count of Flanders, Ferrand of
Portugal. The decisive
Battle of Bouvines in 1214 saw Philippe Auguste emerge victorious, enabling him to implement administrative reforms to consolidate royal power. These changes, along with the support of his successor
Saint Louis, allowed the French monarchy to exert influence over Flanders and Hainaut. The early 13th century also saw significant religious expansion in these regions with the establishment of monasteries and
beguinages, fostering religious movements like Rheno-Flemish mysticism.
Hundred Years' War in 1347,
Froissart's Chronicles The 14th century brought the crisis of the
late Middle Ages and rising tensions between France and England, particularly over
Flanders, Guyenne, and
Scotland. The
Count of Flanders, though serving the French King, had economic ties with England, while the
Count of Hainaut aligned with the Emperor, an English ally.
Edward III's campaign in 1346 led to the protracted siege of Calais. The
Hundred Years' War, while destructive, was overshadowed by devastating epidemics like the
Black Death, which struck southern
Hainaut in 1316, killing a third of the population, and reoccurred several times, including a severe outbreak in
Calais in 1348.
From the Revolution to the First Empire Context in 1789 Northern France, described by
Jean-Clément Martin as the "aborted
Vendée", was notably hostile to the
French Revolution. The local peasants, deeply affected by the king's execution in January 1793, resisted the new revolutionary order.
Liberty trees were cut down in the
Cambrai district, and
parishioners refused sacraments from constitutional priests. In villages like
Morbecque, peasants rebelled against conscription and faced persecution by the republican authorities.
Creation of the Nord and Pas-de-Calais départements On September 29, 1789, the Constituent Assembly decided to reorganize France into departments of approximately 324 square leagues each. The northern provinces were to form four departments, but various projects clashed. Ultimately, the National Assembly decided in 1790 to create the
Nord and
Pas-de-Calais departments.
Douai was initially chosen as the prefecture of Nord due to
Merlin de Douai's influence, but it was later moved to
Lille by the
First Consul on 3
Thermidor IX. The Nord department consisted of eight districts:
Bergues,
Hazebrouck,
Lille,
Douai,
Cambray,
Valenciennes,
Le Quesnoy, and
Avesnes, while
Pas-de-Calais comprised
Arras,
Bapaume,
Béthune,
Boulogne,
Calais,
Montreuil,
Saint-Omer, and
Saint-Pol.
Franco-Austrian War and the First Empire in 1792 The
Franco-Austrian War saw Northern France as a significant battleground following the
Brabant and
Liège revolutions. France declared war on
Austria in April 1792, leading to the destruction of cities like
Lille,
Dunkirk, and
Valenciennes. Austrian armies occupied French
Hainaut from 1793 to 1794 until the
French Revolutionary Army conquered the region and annexed Belgium. The Terror further devastated the area, dismantling structures like the
Saint-Amand Abbey and depriving
Cambrai of its
cathedral and
Gothic churches. Under
Napoleon, the
Nord department made substantial efforts to rebuild and unify administratively and socially. However, after Napoleon's defeat at the
Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the region was occupied by British troops until November 1818.
Industrial Revolution Economic boom In the early 19th century, Northern France experienced significant economic development, propelled into the
Industrial Revolution by several key factors.
Napoleon's continental blockade against the United Kingdom forced the region to produce goods locally that had previously been imported, fostering the birth of industries such as sugar production. The introduction of British
steam engines into spinning mills also accelerated production. Central areas rich in coal, from
Béthune to
Valenciennes, became crucial energy sources, further boosted by the
protectionist policies of the
Restoration era after
Belgium's emergence in 1830.
Working class While the industrial boom turned Northern France into an economic powerhouse for over a century, it brought severe hardships for the working class. Miners, as depicted in
Émile Zola's "
Germinal", faced grueling conditions and meager wages, risking their health underground. Textile workers also endured harsh conditions. The 19th century added to their suffering with extreme weather events and five cholera epidemics between 1832 and 1866, the last of which claimed 10,584 lives in the Nord département alone.
World War I When the
First World War started, the region became a strategic target for the
Allies and the
Central Powers, mostly because of the coal and mining resources. When the German troops launched their
attack from Belgium, the region was one of the first to fall under German occupation. Nevertheless, when the Allies stopped Germany at the
Battle of Marne, the front moved back to the area and stabilized near
Arras. During the next four years, the region was split in two: the German holding the
French Flanders and
Cambrai area, the Allied controlling Arras and the Area of Lens. Nevertheless, the combat did not stop, each side wanting the total control of the area. near Arras The Nord-pas-de-Calais was one of the main theaters of the conflict, with many battles occurring between 1914 and 1918, including the
Battle of Vimy Ridge assault during the
Battle of Arras (1917), the
Battle of Artois,
Battle of Loos, and the
Battle of Cambrai. By the time the region was finally liberated by the
Canadian Expeditionary Forces, the entire country was devastated, and
Arras had been 90% destroyed. Currently, there are 650 military cemeteries throughout the Nord-Pas-de-Calais, mostly British and Canadian, as well as large memorials such as the
Canadian National Vimy Memorial and
Notre Dame de Lorette, the world's largest French military cemetery.
Between the wars After the war, the industrial region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais was devastated, and in 1919 was classified as a
red or yellow zone for around two-thirds of its surface area. The reconstruction movement made massive use of immigration, particularly from
Poland, to compensate for the decline in population due to the war, and to adapt to the new legislation limiting the working day to eight hours. But the economic crisis of the 1930s soon prevented any real economic or cultural renaissance. It also led to downsizing, with recent immigrants the first to be affected. The region saw a breakthrough of the extreme right, including the "green shirts" among the peasants, which prompted Le-Nord-Pas-de-Calais to unite. When the
Front Populaire came to power in France in 1936, three deputies from the Nord were in government, including
Roger Salengro. Factories went on strike en masse during the
Matignon Accords. In 1946, the nationalization of companies in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region led to the formation of Houillères du Nord-Pas-de-Calais, with miners receiving special privileges. The steel industry also expanded, benefiting from modernization efforts funded by the
Marshall Plan.
Economic reconstruction and television By the early 1950s, Nord-Pas-de-Calais had regained its industrial strength, primarily in traditional sectors like textiles, coal, and steel, which were starting to decline. This period also marked the advent of regional television with the creation of Télé-Lille in 1950, the first regional television station in France. Despite technological advancements, the region faced economic challenges due to a lack of
diversification.
Algerian War and social tensions The
Algerian War in the mid-20th century significantly impacted the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, home to a large population of Algerian immigrants. This led to social tensions and conflicts between French and Algerian communities, exacerbated by internal strife among Algerians supporting different nationalist movements. The war's impact was felt through numerous violent incidents, including attacks and street shootings, resulting in significant casualties and social unrest.
Industrial decline and economic transition From the 1950s to the 1980s, Nord-Pas-de-Calais experienced a gradual decline in coal mining, textiles, and steel industries, resulting in substantial job losses. The government attempted to revitalize the region's economy by promoting the
automotive industry and attracting plastics companies, which created new employment opportunities. ==Demographics==