Freemasonry in Cuba

The Flag of Cuba was conceived in 1849 by exiled Cuban Freemasons in New York City, under the leadership of General Narciso López. A former Spanish military officer and Freemason, López sought Cuban independence and collaborated with fellow Masons Miguel Teurbe Tolón and Cirilo Villaverde to design a flag that reflected both national aspirations and Masonic symbolism. of liberty, fraternity, and faith in God, and the five-pointed star, a Masonic symbol of fellowship and guidance. This trinity is also reminiscent of the Eye of Providence. The three blue stripes signify Cuba's colonial military divisions, separated by white for purity and justice. Red symbolizes the blood shed for freedom. The first flag was sewn by Emilia Casanova de Villaverde, often referred to as the "Betsy Ross of Cuba,” under the guidance and direction of Marta Abreu, the "Patroness of Cuba." It was first flown publicly in New York on May 11, 1850, and later carried by López during failed liberation expeditions in Cuba. Freemasons continued to play key roles in Cuban independence. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, a Mason and leader of the 1868 uprising, revived López's flag as a revolutionary standard. The flag ultimately became the national emblem upon the Republic of Cuba's founding in 1902, raised over Havana's Morro Castle by another Freemason, Narciso Valdés. == Masonic origins of the Cuban Coat of Arms ==

Miguel Teurbe Tolón, who took part in designing the Cuban flag, also conceived and designed the Cuban National Coat of Arms. It reflects the visual and ideological influence of the Grand Lodge of Colón and incorporates Masonic symbolism. The structure of the shield, with its pointed, oval shape and division into three sections, reflects Masonic heraldic styles. At the top portion of the shield, the rising sun is a powerful Masonic emblem, representing light, wisdom, and new beginnings. In Masonic lodges, the sun rising in the East (or Orient) is symbolic of enlightenment and spiritual awakening. Just beneath the sun sits a golden key, identifying Cuba as the "key to the Gulf of Mexico." The land masses are from left to right, Cape Sable, Florida and Cape Catoche, Mexico. In Masonic terms, a key often represents initiation, the unlocking of esoteric knowledge, or access to sacred truths. Crowning the shield is a Phrygian cap, a classical emblem of liberty and republicanism widely adopted by Enlightenment thinkers and revolutionary movements. However, this cap specifically calls back to direct influence of the French and Haitian Republican Freemasons who established the first non-military lodge in Cuba: Le Temple des Vertus Théologales. In those French Masonic lodges, the Phrygian cap represented liberty and a rejection of the old regime. The cap's placement on a fasces, a Roman symbol of unity and authority through collective strength, reinforces values long upheld by Freemasons, such as order, republican governance, and fraternity. Flanking the shield are two branches: bay laurel on the left, symbolizing glory and triumph, and oak on the right, representing strength, endurance, and virtue. These natural symbols also have long-standing Masonic connotations, often used to evoke moral excellence and spiritual perseverance. == Masonic origins of the Cuban national anthem ==

Pedro "Perucho" Figueredo, a Freemason and orator of the Redención Lodge, composed the Cuban national anthem, originally titled La Bayamesa. He famously wrote its lyrics while mounted on horseback shortly before battle. The origins of La Bayamesa trace back to 1867, a period of mounting frustration among Cuban Creoles following the failure of the Junta de Información; a delegation that had sought peaceful economic reforms and commercial concessions from Spain. The perceived futility of these efforts led many to conclude that the only viable path forward was full political separation through armed insurrection. At that time, the city of Bayamo was home to the Masonic lodge Estrella Tropical No. 19, which operated under the jurisdiction of the Gran Oriente de Cuba y las Antillas (GOCA). Among its notable members were Francisco Vicente Aguilera, , and Figueredo, all key figures in the early independence movement. On the night of August 13, 1867, these three men gathered at the home of Perucho Figueredo to establish a Revolutionary Committee to plan the uprising against Spanish colonial rule. At the conclusion of the meeting, Osorio reportedly said to Figueredo:"Now it is your turn, as a musician, to compose our Marseillaise."By the early hours of the following morning, the music of what would become the Cuban national anthem had been composed. The anthem was first performed publicly during the celebration of the Feast of Corpus Christi, in the presence of the local governor and a large number of Bayamo's residents. A few months later, on October 20, 1868, insurgent forces entered Bayamo. Amid widespread public celebration, Figueredo composed the lyrics to accompany the anthem's melody. This act has since been memorialized as a foundational moment in the Cuban national identity. == The first Freemasons in Cuba ==

The Masonic historian and Author Ray Denslow wrote in the year 1955 that: "For more than a century, in Cuba, to be a Freemason was to be a martyr; in fact being a Freemason in any Latin American country in times past, or even at the present time, requires a great amount of that Masonic virtue known as Fortitude, for many a Freemason has given up his life in the defense of principles. The story of Freemasonry on the Island of Cuba is filled with these stories of persecution, of hardships, of strife between grand lodges, of contention between 'higher bodies' which sought to dominate grand lodges, and finally, the formation of a 'united' grand lodge which is today carrying on the traditions and customs of Freemasonry in a way which has caused it to secure recognition from practically all the Masonic world." These appointments corresponded with strategic points of British imperial expansion or areas where the British Empire had notable economic or political interests. In Cuba's case, this designation coincided with Britain's preparations for the military capture of Havana, which took place in 1762 during the Seven Years’ War. The Grand Lodge of Ireland issued a warrant to the Freemasons affiliated with this regiment, establishing Lodge 218, which operated briefly during the occupation. This lodge is often referred to as the Regimental Lodge 218 and is believed to have ceased functioning when the regiment departed Cuba. No evidence exists that the British soldiers intiated any Cuban citizens during this time, despite widespread speculation, particularly because the mandate of their military lodge prevented them from doing so. Nevertheless, this episode marks Cuba as one of the earliest territories in Latin America considered for Masonic development under the English Masonic tradition. The details of this Lodge's operation are scarce. Masonic tradition holds that the lodge met in the Convent of San Francisco, which at the time had been seized by the occupying British forces and used for military purposes. In the 2010s, Masonic carvings were found in the stonework of the Convent by the Cuban historian Eusebio Leal Spengler. The Ars Quatuor Coronatorum (AQC), the transactions of the Quatuor Coronati Lodge 2076 in London, preserved a photograph of a rare Cuban Masonic document related to this lost lodge. Written on parchment measuring 8¾ inches by 8½ inches, the manuscript is sealed with red wax, bearing the impression of an arm holding a Mason's trowel. Attached to the seal are two ribbons: a wider blue ribbon and a narrower yellow one. Masonic historian Robert Freke Gould verified the existence of this lodge and examined the document. However, he noted that the officers listed on the certificate did not correspond to any known officials of the regiment. This discrepancy suggests that the lodge may have worked exclusively within the regiment, without engaging with the local civilian population. Gould also indicated that the warrant was granted in 1750, and that 11 members of the regiment were likely initiated during their stationing in Havana. in the Capture of Havana on the 7th of June, 1762 The document referenced in the AQC is a membership certificate, which reads:“And the Darkness Comprehended it Not– In the East, a place full of Light where reigns silence and peace. We, the Master, Wardens, and Secretary of the Worshipful Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons, dedicated to St. John, No. 218 on the Registry of Ireland, held in the Forty-Eighth Regiment of Foot (Ne Varietur), adorned with all their honors and assembled in due form, Do hereby declare, certify, and attest to all enlightened men across the face of the Earth that the bearer hereof, Alexander Cockburn, has been received an Entered Apprentice and Fellow Craft, and after sufficient proof and trial, we have given unto him the sublime degree of Master. He may lawfully and safely, without any demur, be admitted into and accepted by any society to whom these presents come, greeting. Given under our hands and seal at our Lodge Room at Havana, this 3rd day of May, in the year of our Lord 1763 and in the Year of Masonry 5763.” Signed: • William Smith, Master • James Lee, Warden • Richard Coombs, Warden • Peter Tobin, Secretary == Étienne Morin and the early French-Hatain influence in Cuba ==

is one of the most famous and most mysterious manuscripts in Freemasonry. This book plate is suspected to have been drawn by Étienne Morin. The Grand Lodge of France extended its influence to the Caribbean in the mid-18th century. In the 1760s, the first recorded Masonic lodges appeared in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now called Haiti), only about 20 to 25 miles from Cuba, and émigré Masons from these lodges helped establish Cuban Freemasonry. appointing him Deputy Inspector for Saint-Domingue, with the explicit purpose of expanding Perfection Masonry throughout the Americas. Morin did not merely propagate existing practices, he also created new degrees and introduced innovations that ultimately contributed to the development of an entirely new Masonic system. This is despite the fact that he had already possessed Letters Patent of his Authority from the "Grand Master and Protector of all Lodges His Royal Highness, and Very Illustrious Brother" Louis De Bourbon, Compte de Clermont, and also because he had spent two years in British prisons. Long after Morin had settled into his role alongside Henry Andrew Francken, Perfection Masonry laid the groundwork for a network of lodges stretching from Haiti to Louisiana, via Cuba. During this process, the rite was adapted and enriched in response to local circumstances. In 1797, while Louisiana was still under French control, this tradition gave rise to eight new degrees, leading to the formation of what became the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. Alongside the York Rite, it would become one of the most influential and widely practiced Masonic systems across the Americas. After this, the next wave of Freemasons to arrive in Cuba were the French Haitians fleeing the Haitian Revolution of 1791, members of the French Masonic Lodges created by Morin. Around the year 1800, following the expulsion of Spanish and French forces from the islands of Saint-Domingue and Haiti, many of the displaced settlers, including several Freemasons, resettled in Cuba's Oriente Province. These Freemasons had previously worked under charters that permitted Masonic activity solely on the island of Santo Domingo. Their arrival in Cuba marked the beginning of a new phase in the development of Cuban Freemasonry. In Havana, two other lodges, originally known as L’Amitié and La Concorde Bienfaisante, also resumed work despite their charters being valid only for use in Saint-Domingue. These lodges adopted Spanish-language names: Amistad and Benéfica Concordia. Though they gave their names to two streets in Havana, little is known today about their internal operations. == Vatican repression of Cuban Freemasonry in the 18th century ==

According to historian Emanuel Rebold, Cuba in this era was one of the most extreme examples of Freemasonry being subjected to relentless persecution by the monarchy. Rebold notes:"In no place except Cuba has Freemasonry faced such severe persecution as in this Catholic kingdom par excellence, persecution grounded in the bulls of Clement XII, Benedict XIV, and the edict of Cardinal Consalvi, all of which excommunicated Freemasons and imposed the harshest punishments, including death."In the 18th century, mainland Spain experienced significant tensions between Freemasonry and the Catholic Church, which filtered into her colonies. Lodges had been established in Madrid and Gibraltar by the mid-century, and the Catholic clergy, particularly the ultra-Catholic factions, opposed the fraternity vehemently. A notable instance of this opposition involved José Torrubia, a censor and official within the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Madrid, who was tasked by his superiors to infiltrate Masonic lodges. In the 1740s, he obtained papal dispensations relieving him of any oaths required by the Masons, allowing him to gather information on their practices. After attending various lodges throughout Spain, Torrubia presented his findings before the Supreme Tribunal of the Inquisition, denouncing Freemasonry as a “subversive institution” and accusing its members of moral and religious corruption. He also provided a list of active lodges in Spain and urged the full force of the Inquisition to be brought down upon them. As a result, the Spanish Crown, under the influence of the Inquisition, issued a royal edict banning Freemasonry. Freemasons found to be active in the fraternity were subject to execution, effectively suppressing Masonic activity in Spain for several decades. == Joseph Cerneau and Le Temple des Vertus Théologales ==

On December 17, 1804, Freemasons in Havana, including former members of the Saint-Domingue lodges and others affiliated with Pennsylvania Freemasonry, had obtained a charter from the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. These founding members of the lodge included Joseph Cerneau, Pierre Courroy and Pierre Bauschey. This allowed them to establish a new lodge in Havana under the name Le Temple des Vertus Théologales 103 (English: Temple of the Theological Virtues), marking one of the first Masonic lodges in Cuba officially recognized under an Anglo-American jurisdiction. Joseph Cerneau was born in 1763 in Villeblevin, France, and worked as a silversmith by trade. He later traveled to Havana, Cuba, where, by 1801, he had settled and become involved in Freemasonry. Cerneau attained all degrees of the Scottish Rite practiced at that time, culminating in the 25th degree, which was then the highest degree conferred. Due to political concerns tied to his French nationality and perceived revolutionary leanings, he was expelled from Cuba in 1806. Following his expulsion, Cerneau relocated to New York City, where he became instrumental in establishing a Scottish Rite body known as the Grand Consistory of the United States of America, creating an incredibly controversial Masonic movement in the process called "Cerneauism." He remained active in Masonic circles until his death in France in 1815. Following the Peninsular War, Cuba's colonial government ordered the expulsion of non-naturalized French refugees from Saint-Domingue. The authorities also ordered the closure of the lodges Concorde and Perseverancia in eastern Cuba. These two lodges later reappeared in New Orleans, Louisiana, operating under charters from the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. In 1812, they joined with other lodges to form the Grand Lodge of Louisiana. Over the following two decades, several additional lodges were chartered under Pennsylvania's authority:. == The Rebellion of 1810 ==

In 1809, one of the earliest separatist plots in Cuban history, the , emerged within the Temple of the Theological Virtues. This movement, often associated with Román de la Luz, a wealthy Havana landowner, is considered a foundational moment in the island's independence aspirations. Other key members of the conspiracy included Manuel Ramírez, the lodge's warden, and Captain Luis Francisco Bassave of the Regiment of Whites of Havana. Notably, the individuals involved were not only Freemasons but also included free Black and mixed-race Cubans. The precise goals of the conspiracy remain unclear and continue to be a subject of scholarly debate. However, among its most significant participants was José Joaquín Infante, a lawyer from Bayamo and a member of the Spanish legal system in Cuba. He managed to escape arrest and later joined the independence efforts in Venezuela. While in exile, Infante authored what is believed to be the first constitutional proposal for an independent Cuban republic. Likely drafted around 1810 and eventually published in Caracas in 1811, this document predated Spain's own liberal Constitution of Cádiz. Infante's text demonstrated influence from two key sources: the 1801 Haitian Constitution shaped by Toussaint Louverture, and Masonic principles associated with the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. The constitution stood out for its forward-thinking concepts, particularly the advocacy for a secular state, the separation of powers, religious freedom, civil liberties, and popular sovereignty. These ideas would later become recurring features of Cuban constitutionalism, drawing a line between secular republican independence and reformist integration within the Spanish monarchy. Captain Luis Francisco Bassave also drew attention from colonial authorities. Captain General Someruelos accused him of inciting enslaved and free Black and mulatto residents of Havana's poorer districts. According to official reports, Bassave aimed to lead a rebellion that included the Milicias Disciplinadas de Pardos y Morenos and laborers from marginalized urban communities. == The Aponte Rebellion ==

was a famous slave revolt in Cuba. On March 16, 1812, an insurrection was launched under the leadership of José Antonio Aponte, a free Black carpenter. Aponte is remembered not only for his role in this uprising but also for his rumored participation in Black regiments aligned with American forces during the American Revolutionary War. He was reportedly connected to members of the Temple of the Theological Virtues lodge. Captured on April 7, Aponte was sentenced to death without trial and executed two days later. His severed head was displayed publicly in a metal cage at the entrance to Havana, near the road to Jesús del Monte, as a warning. Following this failed uprising, Masonic activity in Cuba entered a period of suppression. Around 1814, active lodges, including the Temple of the Theological Virtues, were officially dissolved. That same year, King Ferdinand VII issued a royal decree via the Regency Council banning all Masonic organizations within the Spanish empire and classifying them as criminal entities. Despite the prohibition, the Temple of the Theological Virtues continued operating in secrecy during the absolutist restoration. With the onset of the liberal Trienio Constitucional (1820–1823), when constitutional rights were briefly reinstated in Spain and its colonies, the lodge reemerged publicly in 1820. == Louis Clouet d'Obernay and the Grand Orient lodges ==

. He was also a prominent Freemason who used the secret codename "''d'Obernay''."|left In 1818, a French Freemason named Colonel took up a second residence in Havana, Cuba. Louis de Clouet, a French colonial officer and key figure in the early development of Cienfuegos, Cuba, played a foundational role in introducing Freemasonry to the island during the early 19th century. Under the Masonic pseudonym d’Obernay, Clouet contributed to the creation of one of the earliest Masonic frameworks in Spanish Cuba: blending French Masonic traditions with emerging Caribbean and Latin American Masonic currents. Clouet's early work as d’Obernay was a pivotal moment in the creolization of Masonic practice and the formation of Cuba's modern civic and fraternal culture. The name d’Obernay, adopted by Clouet, refers to a small town in Alsace, France, and likely alludes to a figure he either knew or admired, Joseph de Glock, a controversial Freemason known for establishing high-degree Masonic lodges across the Caribbean and claiming authority from both French and English Masonic obediences. By adopting this symbolic name, Clouet aligned himself with a broader movement of Masonic independence and regional adaptation, reflecting the ideological and institutional shifts occurring throughout the Americas during and after the age of revolutions. Clouet started an organization for high-ranking Freemasons. This group followed the Scottish Rite, a style of Freemasonry with 33 degrees, and was officially approved by the main French Masonic authority in 1819. His group was allowed to create new lodges, promote members, and spread Freemasonry in Cuba. These lodges were part of what are called symbolic lodges, or "Blue Lodges," where the basic three levels of Freemasonry are practiced. They were overseen by an organization in Cuba called the Gran Oriente Simbólico de la Isla de Cuba (Symbolic Grand Orient of the Island of Cuba), sometimes called Nueva Tebayda. Soon after this new Masonic structure was set up, the main French Masonic authority handed over its control of Cuba to the Spanish National Grand Orient. However, this Spanish group was a mess, with different factions fighting over who was in charge. Cuban Freemasons didn't want to take orders from a divided Spanish organization, especially since many of them also wanted independence from Spain politically. From De Clouet's group, a new Masonic authority grew in Havana, called the Territorial Grand Orient of Spanish-America. It had two parts: one for the symbolic lodges and another for the higher-degree members (up to the 32nd degree). Many members were Spanish military and navy officers. This organization claimed to oversee not just Cuba, but also lodges in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Florida, and even parts of the Caribbean like Haiti and the Dominican Republic. == Joel Roberts Poinsett and the introduction of the York Rite ==

On Saturday, April 15, 1820, news of the success of Rafael del Riego's liberal constitutionalist movement in Spain reached Cuba. In response, Juan Manuel Cajigal was compelled to swear allegiance to the Spanish Constitution of 1812. This action was demanded by members of the Málaga and Cataluña regiments, Spanish troops stationed in Havana en route to suppress the Latin American independence movements. Shortly afterward, an influx of new Masonic lodges and non-Masonic secret societies emerged across the island, many of which adopted the structural and organizational models associated with Freemasonry. Two primary Masonic bodies were officially constituted in Cuba in this era: • The Grand Spanish Lodge of Ancient and Accepted Masons of York, or "Yorkists" • The Grand Spanish American Territorial Orient of the Scottish Rite, or "Scotsists" Although both rites adhered to the universal principles of Freemasonry, they each exhibited a distinct political dimension, particularly evident in the accompanying literature and ideological expressions rather than in the formal regulations of the lodges. Internal divisions within the Masonic community, as well as between Masonic lodges and politically driven societies, were rooted in the defense of competing visions for the future of society, visions that opposed the legacy of the Ancien Régime. These tensions extended beyond the shared framework of constitutionalist discourse. introduced the York Rite to CubaA key figure in promoting the York Rite in the region was Joel Roberts Poinsett, a diplomat and covert agent from the American government. Poinsett played an instrumental role in spreading this Masonic movement throughout Latin America and was present in Cuba at the time when the York Rite began gaining a foothold on the island. In a letter dated October 14, 1825, Poinsett explicitly acknowledged the political purpose of the York Rite, crediting it with advancing liberal reform. He wrote that he had encouraged and supported a group of respectable individuals in founding a Grand Lodge of York Freemasonry in Mexico to counteract the conservative or "fanatical" factions and to promote liberal governance. The York Rite here was characterized by its Protestant, secular, and biblical influences. The Grand Spanish Lodge of Ancient and Accepted Masons of York was officially established on November 30, 1820. York Rite Freemasonry, as practiced in the Americas during this era, was heavily influenced by the United States, especially the state of Pennsylvania. Its rituals, doctrinal orientation, and leadership conveyed a distinctly liberal worldview, rooted in North American political thought rather than that of Spain. It was also marked by Protestant values and a critical stance toward Catholicism, especially in terms of the Church's ethical and social teachings. Ideologically aligned with North American republicanism, this Masonic body promoted the expansion of “the area of freedom.” The Scottish Rite, in stark contrast, reflected a Latin and secular orientation but without overt anti-Catholic elements. Scottish Rite Freemasonry in Cuba was largely controlled by members of the local Creole elite – meaning mostly persons of combined French and Spanish ancestry (not to be confused with Criollo people, who also belonged to this movement). The leader of this movement was Count Alejandro O’Reilly, a powerful and wealthy landowner in Cuba. Among the most influential voices within the Scottish lodges was Nicolás de Escovedo, a devoted follower of Father Félix Varela, the priest and philosopher often credited with initiating the development of uniquely Cuban political and philosophical thought. While the York Rite was tied more closely to North American political goals and reformist ideals, the Scottish Rite maintained stronger connections to traditional landholding elites and intellectual circles on the island. In addition to these Masonic organizations, several non-Masonic secret societies also became active during this period, often adopting Masonic-style frameworks. These included the; Comuneros, Carbonarios, Anilleros, Cadena Triangular, Soles, and Caballeros Racionales. While these groups varied in origin and function, they all reflected differing political ideologies and objectives, despite often being confused with actual Masonic lodges. Freemasonry, however, was distinguished from these politically motivated secret societies. Many of these groups adopted Masonic-like structures or symbols, often imitating the ritualistic and hierarchical elements of Freemasonry. This occurred in a historical context in which modern political parties had not yet formed in Cuba, and alternative modes of political and social organization were still emerging. Over time, such distinctions would become more defined.|leftBy 1822, Freemasons in Cuba who followed the York Rite were operating independently. But those under the Scottish Rite still had to deal with Spanish interference. To break free from this and to stop the higher-ranking Scottish Rite group from taking over the basic lodges, the leaders of the symbolic lodges teamed up with the York Rite Masons. On November 7, 1822, they merged their organizations and created a new body called the Spanish Grand Lodge of the York Rite. They picked leaders by drawing lots, and by early 1823, they were overseeing 66 lodges. This marked a high point for Freemasonry in Cuba. But the politics of the time got in the way. The Spanish king banned Freemasonry again in 1824, and the military governor of Cuba enforced this strictly. By January 1825, the new Grand Lodge had officially shut down. By the mid-1820s, Cuban Freemasonry began to detach itself from both English and French control, leading to the creation of a national Grand Orient (reputedly in 1824) under the auspices of President Jean-Pierre Boyer in Haiti, influencing developments across the Caribbean. For the next 30 years, Freemasonry in Cuba was mostly underground. Still, individual Cuban Masons, some of whom had joined lodges abroad, kept the spirit alive. In 1857, a new lodge called Prudencia was founded in Matanzas, with permission from a Masonic group in Louisiana. Around the same time, two other lodges were started in Santiago de Cuba under a Spanish Masonic authority based in Barcelona. Despite the constant crackdowns, they tried to keep Freemasonry going in Cuba. == Revolution of the Suns and Rays of Bolívar ==

By the early 1820s, Freemasonry had established a significant presence in Cuba, with more than a dozen active lodges across the island. Most were chartered through Masonic authorities in cities like Philadelphia and New Orleans. Their names reflected a range of moral ideals and cultural aspirations, for example, lodges such as Temple of the Divine Shepherdess No. 11, Delights of Havana No. 157, Reward for Virtues No. 161, Rectitude No. 14, Fidelity of Havana No. 167, and True Philanthropy No. 181. Despite their diverse origins and philosophies, these lodges shared the contradictions of the colonial society in which they operated. The Cuban Grand Oriente, based in Havana, was careful not to appear sympathetic to rebellion or separatist efforts, especially during a time of economic expansion fueled by enslaved labor. In 1821, the Grand Lodge issued a reminder to its members affirming their duty to promote public order and to comply with the laws of the land, highlighting that their oaths as Freemasons bound them to such conduct. One lodge pamphlet, produced on an in-house printing press run by enslaved workers, projected loyalty to colonial authorities. Drawing on a common Masonic analogy, the writer likened the publication to the construction of a symbolic monument honoring Havana's city council members. Each member was described in brief poetic form, praised for their dedication to constitutional ideals. However, the tone became increasingly sycophantic, one exaggerated comparison claimed that a local official was unmatched in character among all the planets. In the final entry, supposedly about the city council secretary Francisco Sánchez del Prado, the anonymous author hinted that he himself might be the author. He criticized the ruling elite as unfit to govern, comparing them to a child recklessly wielding a razor while attempting to mimic adult appearance. The work concluded with a dedication to future historians of Cubanacán, an imagined Cuban republic envisioned by certain conspiratorial circles within the Masonic community. The Masonic landscape in Cuba also reflected tensions between ethnic identities and competing international influences. While some Cuban lodges considered aligning with the Grand Orient of France, enticed by offers of lower dues and increased benefits, others sought independence by founding a native Grand Lodge in 1821, affiliated with the York Rite tradition connected to Philadelphia. During this period, the Cuban Masonic community gradually adopted a more radical stance. A striking example appeared in April 1822, when a document signed by “The Philanthropist Manuel Bernardo Lorenzana” was published in the periodical El Esquife Constitucional. Encoded with typographic symbols recognizable to Masons, the text ended with the dramatic slogan, “Constitution or Death!” Cuba also became a point of passage for prominent Latin American intellectuals and reformers. Figures such as Vicente Rocafuerte (Ecuador), Servando Teresa de Mier and Miguel Ramos Arizpe (Mexico), Manuel Lorenzo Vidaurre (Peru), and José Fernández de Madrid (Colombia) spent time on the island in the early 1820s. Many of them had links to Freemasonry and participated in the constitutional movements taking shape across the continent. By 1823, Captain General Francisco Dionisio Vives was acutely aware of political instability in Spain, where liberal constitutionalists were being overthrown by absolutists. Although he received directives to allow broader political dialogue and civil association in Cuba, Vives declined to act. Ironically, while he cited concerns about possible unrest among the Black and mixed-race population, the real challenge came from white urban professionals who launched a clandestine independence movement named after their Masonic lodge: The Suns and Rays of Bolívar. was the leader of the Suns and Rays of Bolívar. The movement's leader, José Francisco Lemus, had previously served with Simón Bolívar's forces in Colombia. Though Bolívar was focused on military campaigns in Peru at the time and had no direct contact with the Cuban conspirators, Lemus invoked his name and ideals to galvanize support. He proclaimed himself general of a nascent Cuban republic, dubbed the Republic of Cubanacán, and coordinated the movement through a network of Masonic lodges. The Revolution overall would come to be known as the Revolution of the Suns and Rays. Adherents used symbols and codes to recognize one another, such as feathered hats and color-coded sashes, and even incorporated cryptic punctuation in correspondence, including one 1821-dated letter (marked as "Anno Lucis 5821" in Masonic calendar style) sent from Havana to a lodge in Trinidad with accompanying revolutionary pamphlets. The idea of Cuban independence had circulated for decades, but the relative freedom of the Trienio Liberal in Spain, combined with news of republican victories in the Americas, emboldened supporters. Masonic lodges served as hubs for spreading ideas, building networks, and attracting new sympathizers. The Suns and Rays of Bolívar had cells in cities such as Matanzas, Guanabacoa, and San Antonio. Their support base consisted largely of white Cubans from the middle and professional classes, who nonetheless excluded enslaved people and free people of color from their vision of citizenship. Meanwhile, the white landowning elite reacted with alarm, warning that the conspiracy could lead to a slave rebellion similar to the Haitian Revolution, a deeply traumatic memory for French and Cuban slaveholders alike. By the end of 1823, the movement collapsed. Informants, ranging from enslaved individuals to servants and lower-class citizens, reported conspirators to colonial authorities. The crackdown was severe: 602 people were arrested, 71 were fined between 100 and 3,000 pesos, and 29 were deported to prisons in Spain. In the aftermath, censorship intensified, police oversight expanded, and university curricula were purged as liberal faculty fled or were expelled. Although ultimately unsuccessful, the Soles y Rayos de Bolívar conspiracy is recognized as one of the earliest large-scale efforts to challenge Spanish colonial rule in Cuba, deeply entwined with Masonic networks and republican ideals circulating across the Atlantic world. == Vatican repression of Cuban Freemasonry in the 19th century ==

During much of the 19th century, Cuban Freemasonry operated clandestinely due to legal restrictions imposed by Spanish colonial authorities. • Nicolás Domínguez Cowan – Proposed funeral honors for Andrés Puente. • Eduardo Godwin – Saved the lodge charter during the 1870 attack; custom house employee. During the administration of Governor Miguel Tacón, Masonic activity was virtually silenced, with harsh laws penalizing any association with secret societies. Despite these obstacles, a resurgence of Masonic organization began. By the 1840s and 1850s, Masons began cautiously reorganizing. A Grand Lodge was formed in 1849, though meetings had to remain discreet to avoid police raids. Officially, between 1830 and 1857, there were no regular or irregular Masonic institutions operating within Cuba that weren't operating entirely underground. Despite the concurrent rise of liberal movements in Spain, Freemasonry remained subject to criminal prosecution. Under the reign of Ferdinand VII, the practice of Freemasonry was legally defined as a crime, leading to its suppression in both the Spanish metropole and its colonies. Although tensions eased over time, particularly following the Royal Decree of April 23, 1834, issued by the moderate liberal government of Francisco Martínez de la Rosa, which reduced penalties for Masonic activities, the Penal Code continued to classify Freemasonry as a criminal offense. Nevertheless, individual Freemasons maintained an active presence on the island throughout this period. One of the defining features of this era was the participation of Cuban nationals in foreign Masonic organizations, especially those based in the United States, Mexico, and France. At the same time, a number of secret societies operated in Cuba with political objectives centered on the island's separation from Spain. These groups often adopted Masonic structures and initiation rituals, which has led to frequent, but mistaken, identification with Freemasonry itself. Some of these societies advocated for full independence, while others supported the annexation of Cuba by the United States. Notable among these politically oriented secret societies were the Liberation Society of Port-au-Prince, the Lone Star Order, and The Union, the latter explicitly supporting annexation. These organizations frequently referred to themselves as "lodges" due to their initiation practices and internal organization, and some used both Masonic terminology and pro-separatist rhetoric. However, they did not conform to the standards of Masonic regularity nor did they observe constitutional norms established by traditional Masonic authorities. Between 1848 and 1855, during the height of the annexationist movement, the number of conspiratorial groups increased. Many of them adopted Masonic-like forms, reflecting the influence of Freemasonry on political activism. During this period, a pronounced North American influence was evident, which also shaped the thinking of some Freemasons on the island. This phenomenon occurred within a broader context marked by the fragmentation and crisis of Cuban nationalist consciousness. The political landscape shifted following the 1855 triumph of Spain's Liberal Union, whose leading figures, such as Generals Leopoldo O'Donnell y Jorris, José Gutiérrez de la Concha y Irigoyen, Domingo Dulce y Garay, and Francisco Serrano y Cuenca Guevara Domínguez, had close ties to Cuba's colonial elite and served as Captain Generals of the island. This alignment enabled the development of a reformist movement in Cuba and opened new possibilities for freedom of the press, as well as limited political and social liberalization. In 1868, amidst increasing sociopolitical unrest in colonial Cuba, , the Provisional Governor of the Archbishopric of Cuba and a Catholic priest, issued a circular vehemently condemning Freemasonry. In this public declaration, Orbera y Carrión asserted that Masonic activities sought to undermine the Catholic faith and moral order within his ecclesiastical jurisdiction. He characterized Freemasonry as inherently subversive and sacrilegious, citing the secrecy of lodge meeting places and the solemn, quasi-religious atmosphere of Masonic rituals as evidence of its deviation from acceptable religious practice. To substantiate his denunciation, Orbera y Carrión referenced a series of papal bulls and edicts issued against Freemasonry, beginning with Pope Clement XII's In Eminenti Apostolatus Specula and continuing through the pontificate of Pope Pius IX, including his condemnation of secret societies in 1865. The circular urged Catholics to reject Freemasonry and called upon civil authorities to consider its prohibition, framing the fraternity as a threat to both Church and state. In response to the ecclesiastical denunciation, Maximiliano Galán, a leading Cuban Freemason, published a comprehensive rebuttal defending the fraternity's ethical and spiritual values. Galán contended that Freemasonry aimed to promote moral instruction and fraternal solidarity in accordance with the teachings of Jesus Christ. He emphasized the Masonic aspiration to build a universal community based on friendship and brotherhood, consistent with the ideal of transforming humanity into a single, harmonious family. Galán argued that many of the criticisms directed at Freemasonry had historically been directed at early Christians, suggesting a parallel between the unjust persecution of both groups. He further criticized Orbera y Carrión for extending his accusations beyond the fraternity to include the families of its members, asserting that Masonic morality and belief in a Supreme Being were foundational to initiation. While expressing regret if his reply caused offense, Galán reaffirmed that Freemasonry, in accordance with Christian principles, harbored no hatred, even toward its detractors. Even after Queen Isabella II was deposed in 1868 and Masonic restrictions eased in Spain, prohibitions continued to be enforced in Cuba for several more years. While some colonial officials, including governors, were themselves Freemasons and intermittently tolerated the Craft, Cuban Masons still generally operated in secrecy. To avoid persecution, members used pseudonyms, or "Masonic names," and official lodge records often substituted aliases in place of real identities to protect members from detection. == Grand Lodge of Colón and Grand Orient of Colón ==

In 1857, the first two lodges were established in Santiago de Cuba: Fraternidad 1 and Prudencia 2. These lodges aimed to reconstitute Freemasonry on the island. Unlike the lodges from earlier periods, which had a strong North American orientation, these new institutions leaned toward Spanish traditions and sought affiliation with the Gran Oriente Hispérico Reformado de España. However, that body no longer existed at the time, preventing such affiliation. No central Masonic authority existed in Spain at that point. The Grand National Orient of Spain (Gran Oriente Nacional de España) would not be established until six years after the Cuban lodges had been founded. Given the desire to establish an autonomous Cuban Grand Lodge, these early Masonic institutions in Cuba reached out to Albert G. Mackey and Albert Pike, then Grand Commander of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite in the United States. Andrés Cassard and the Grand Lodge of Colón Even though Cuba was under the strict rule of Spanish General José de la Concha in the 1850s, Freemasonry began to make a comeback in 1859, mostly thanks to one determined man: Andrés Cassard. On March 26, 1859, Andrés Cassard, a Cuban of French descent residing in New York City, was authorized by Pike and Mackey to create the higher Masonic offices, degrees, and bodies of the Scottish Rite in Cuba. In December 1859, Jean Pierre A. Cassard arrived in Santiago de Cuba from New York. Cassard had been living in exile in the United States because of his revolutionary activities there: the Spanish government had also issued a warrant for his execution. Because of this, Cassard decided not to leave the security of his ship, and transformed the ship into a floating Masonic temple. He brought with him permission from the main Masonic authority in Charleston, South Carolina, and even printed Spanish-language materials to help teach and organize Cuban Masons. Although this Supreme Council received recognition from the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, its existence, like that of other Masonic bodies in Cuba, remained technically illegal under Spanish law. On December 27, while still aboard his ship, he founded the Supreme Council of the 33rd Degree for Cuba and the Spanish Antilles. This event holds particular significance, as the documentation indicates that from the beginning, Colón Freemasonry was envisioned to hold jurisdiction not only over Cuba, the largest of the Antilles, but also over Puerto Rico and potentially Santo Domingue, thereby extending its reach across the Hispanic Antilles. When Cassard arrived, he found the two Masonic lodges already operating: Prudencia in Matanzas, (though not officially recognized), and Fraternidad. These were the only lodges left to work with in re-establishing Freemasonry in Cuba. To form an official Grand Lodge, they needed at least one more. So, in 1859, some Cuban Masons living in exile in New York teamed up with members of Fraternidad to get permission from South Carolina to start a new lodge. This new lodge was named San Andrés, and by November 1859, it became Lodge 3. The Grand Lodge they created on December 5 was called the Grand Lodge of Colón.. One of the most notable features of Colón Freemasonry was its ideological alignment. Despite having obtained patents of incorporation from North American Masonic bodies, its orientation and activism were more closely associated with what came to be known as Latin Freemasonry. This current of Freemasonry is characterized by a departure from the Protestant, mystical, and elitist traditions of Anglo-Saxon Freemasonry. In the case of the Colón tradition, it also incorporated a pronounced Hispanic cultural and ideological influence. For this reason, the institution as such cannot be characterized as having engaged in political actions against the existing colonial regime. This apolitical posture is particularly evident in the backgrounds of the individuals who led these Masonic bodies in their early stages. Although the two Masonic bodies – the Lodge and the council – were formally established to govern the various degrees of Columbian Freemasonry, the irregular circumstances surrounding the foundation of the Supreme Council immediately gave rise to a significant rivalry over jurisdiction and authority between it and the leadership of the Grand Lodge. The first Grand Commander of the Supreme Council was Antonio Vinent y Gola, a Spanish merchant, major landowner, and one of the wealthiest individuals in eastern Cuba. He held the noble title Marquis of Palomares del Río, granted in recognition of his services against the Cuban independence movement. Similarly, the first Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Colón was Francisco de Griñán, another prominent landowner from eastern Cuba who was also actively involved in the suppression of independence efforts. Despite its Masonic progressivism in form, the Columbus obedience adhered to a strict racial exclusion policy, forbidding the initiation of men of color. This Supreme Council and its Grand Lodge were exceptionally racist in their character: their charter was based in the Southern States, and their leadership was composed of landholding Criollo elites of the planter class. In 1860 and 1861, more lodges were founded across Cuba, like Restauración, Amor Fraternal, Segunda Prudencia, and Discípulos de Salomón. One lodge, Fe Masónica (Masonic Faith), was formed in 1862 in Havana by members of Amor Fraternal, though it faced some pushback. Vincente de Castro and the Grand Orient of Cuba and the Antilles Cuban historians and Masonic historians encountering this period of history are mostly confused by the actions of Albert Pike at this point, because his actions seem contradictory in nature, and they are still being closely studied. Despite the fact that Cassard was already in Cuba, Albert Pike authorized another Mason, , to fix any "problems" that might have come from how Cassard set up Freemasonry in Cuba. Vincente de Castro had also been a Cuban living in exile in the United States. In 1861, following a political amnesty issued by the Spanish colonial government, de Casto returned to Cuba after a period of exile. A physician and Enlightenment intellectual, de Castro had regularized his Masonic degrees under Albert Pike during his time in exile. Upon returning to Santiago de Cuba, he encountered a Masonic establishment dominated by colonial interests and quickly became disillusioned with the institution that Cassard had created. Instead of working with the existing Grand Lodge in Santiago de Cuba (the Gran Oriente de Colón), de Castro created his own rival organization in Havana in 1862: the Supreme Council and Grand Orient of Cuba and the Antilles (GOCA). Even though it wasn't officially recognized by everyone, this group got support from European Masonic authorities in France, England, and Scotland. Unlike its rival, GOCA embraced a liberal, republican, and secular philosophy grounded in Enlightenment ideals. It rejected the racial exclusion and political conservatism of the Colón system and cultivated an explicitly patriotic and reformist agenda. GOCA's rituals were Masonic in form but infused with political substance, advocating liberty, equality, and fraternity as its guiding principles. The formation of GOCA provoked strong opposition from both Cassard and Pike. On November 17, 1865, Pike publicly denounced GOCA in a letter, describing it as an illegitimate body and a “central club of Jacobins.” He accused the organization of engaging in political conspiracy rather than legitimate Masonic work and severed ties with it completely. However, Pike himself had apparently not recognized the irony here: Pike himself had served as a Confederate Brigadier General, devoutly supported the Confederate cause, and had only returned to the United States three months from his exile in Canada prior to writing this letter. In an effort to obscure its activities both from Pike and the government of Spain, the united Masonic organization adopted the symbolic name Grand Orient of Colón and carefully avoided disclosing the physical location of its governing headquarters. A constitution originally published in Naples in 1820 was adopted for use by the Grand Orient of Colón, effectively integrating the Supreme Council into the Grand Orient's structure. In 1865, this constitution was replaced by a new one, formally recognizing the Sovereign Grand Commander of the Supreme Council as a central authority. Between 1862 and 1868, the GOCA expanded rapidly throughout Cuba, founding approximately 20 lodges. Many of these lodges either originated independently or defected from the Columbus obedience due to dissatisfaction with its elitist and colonialist orientation. The core divide between the two obediences was political: Columbus Freemasonry remained loyal to the Spanish colonial regime, while GOCA increasingly aligned itself with Cuban nationalist and republican ideals. GOCA drew inspiration from the liberal traditions of Latin American Freemasonry and the revolutionary principles of the French Enlightenment. Its members adopted the motto “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,” and its lodges became centers of political discourse, patriotic education, and subversive planning. The GOCA also promoted social inclusion, opposing the racial exclusion practiced by Columbus Freemasonry and embracing broader social participation. == Jurisdictional disputes ==

During the mid to late 19th century, Freemasonry in Cuba was marked by jurisdictional disputes, government repression, and attempts at organizational consolidation. Although the Grand Lodge of Colón maintained a relationship with the Supreme Council of the 33rd Degree through the Grand Orient of Colón, tensions soon developed between the two bodies. Any Masonic body aligned with the Spanish grand lodges, or the grand lodges based in the Southern states of the US, at this time had outright banned membership by black men. However, members of other Masonic organizations in Cuba were radically abolitionist and radically revolutionary. Francisco Vicente Aguilera, for example, upon freeing the slaves inherited by the death of his father had immediately initiated them into the Freemasons. Other members of the revolutionary movement in Cuba had also taken upon initiating black men, and as well some of the highest-ranking Mambises were black generals. In 1867, under the leadership of Grand Master Andrés Puente, the Gran Lodge of Colón in Santiago de Cuba declared its independence from its own Supreme Council. The Grand Lodge adopted a new constitution stating that it alone had authority over the foundational lodges, known as blue lodges, while the Supreme Council could oversee only the higher degrees of Freemasonry. This separation of powers was publicly supported by Albert Pike. Higher-ranking Masons tried to control basic lodges (called blue lodges), which didn't sit well with the regular members. Sometimes new lodges were started without proper permission, adding to the chaos. And since Santiago was geographically cut off while Havana was the political and communication hub, tensions grew. However, in 1868, the Supreme Council rejected the new constitution and unilaterally shut down the Gran Logia de Colón, claiming full control over all Masonic affairs. Internal conflict had already been brewing: high-ranking Masons from the Supreme Council were attempting to dominate the blue lodges, and new lodges were sometimes established without authorization. These tensions were worsened by geography, Santiago, the original Masonic stronghold, was relatively isolated, while Havana was the colonial capital and better connected. While the Grand Master of the Supreme Council held authority over the Grand Orient by virtue of office, the Grand Lodge's Grand Master was still elected separately. The Grand Lodge issued charters for new lodges, but these required confirmation by the Supreme Council. In 1867, the Grand Lodge issued its own constitution asserting the exclusive right to regulate Blue Lodge Masonry, authority that the Supreme Council contested. The Grand Lodge suspended this constitution in September 1868, pending a Grand Orient meeting planned for November. However, the Ten Years' War erupted in October 1868, halting the meeting. In March 1868, some of the lodges loyal to de Castro in Havana formed the Gran Logia de La Habana. But this body was extremely short-lived, collapsing on October 10, 1868, the day of the Cry of Yara. After this, the only lodge officially recognized was the Grand Lodge of Colón – GOCA was active, but not publicly recognized as regular and correct. == The Ten Years' War ==

GOCA's rituals and liturgies clearly expressed their rationalist, Enlightenment-inspired, liberal, democratic, anticlerical, secular, and deist values. They promoted international solidarity, the defense of secular education, and above all, a patriotic ethos. Their official motto was the revolutionary French triad, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, adopted by the Grand Orient of France in 1848.In 1867, Francisco Vicente Aguilera served as the presiding officer of the lodge Estrella No. 19 in Bayamo, affiliated with the GOCA. Other prominent members of this lodge included , Perucho Figueredo, and Tomás Estrada Palma. Aguilera also chaired the Revolutionary Committee of Bayamo, which had been organized to prepare for an uprising in pursuit of Cuba's independence. In October 1867, the Committee tasked Figueredo with traveling to Havana to inform , the highest authority of the GOCA, of their revolutionary plans. The GOCA gave its support to the Masons of the Oriente Province. Meanwhile, , a member of the San Andrés No. 9 lodge under the jurisdiction of the Gran Logia de Colón, took on the presidency of the Republican Committee of Havana. The conspiracy was gaining momentum. On August 4, 1868, the Tirsán Convention was held at the San Miguel estate in Las Tunas to determine the date of the uprising. The meeting was attended by ten Freemasons representing the lodges Estrella Tropical 19 of Bayamo, Tínima 16 of Puerto Príncipe, and Buena Fe No. 20 of Manzanillo. Although no specific date was set during the convention, it was agreed to reconvene on September 1. The Cry of Yara at the base of the monument to the prominent Cuban Freemason, Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, in Céspedes Park. The Bell of La Demajagua is depicted being rung on the left of the image. The Céspedes Flag, the first Flag of Cuba is depicted being flown on the right.However, anticipating possible intervention by Spanish authorities, Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, who led the Buena Fe (Good Faith) lodge, decided to advance the timeline. The revolutionary uprising at La Demajagua, known as the Cry of Yara, led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes began with the ringing of the Bell of La Demajagua, now a national symbol. Céspedes freed his slaves and launched the Ten Years' War, becoming in the process the first President of the Republic of Cuba in Arms and Captain General of the Cuban Liberation Army. This moment marked the beginning of Cuba's armed struggle for independence. The Cuban Ten Years’ War marked a turning point in Freemasonry. One single military lodge called Independencia operated briefly during the Ten Years’ War. Its members included figures like General Donato Mármol, who once released a captured Spanish officer upon recognizing his Masonic affiliation. General Máximo Gómez, initially critical of the act, later joined the lodge and became a leading figure in Cuba's independence struggle. By early 1869, the entire Masonic structure in Cuba was paralyzed by the war, but also invigorated by it. De Castro's group in Havana had dissolved. The Grand Lodge of Colón in Santiago had gone into recess. The Supreme Council, now the only remaining authority, was inactive due to illness, absences, and surveillance by Spanish colonial authorities. De Castro himself died in May of that year. Guáimaro Constitution On April 10, 1869, at the constitutional assembly held in Guáimaro, nearly all delegates were Freemasons. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes presided, while Ignacio Agramonte and Antonio Zambrana, also Masons, served as secretaries. Agramonte read aloud the new constitution. This assembly consecrated Masonic principles such as Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, Democracy, Secularism, and Social Justice in the foundation of the Cuban Republic in Arms. Despite the turmoil, Cuban Freemasonry endured. But by 1870, the number of active lodges had dropped from about 30 to just 7. That same year, the Supreme Council attempted to reassert itself by creating a new "mother lodge" in Havana, but the effort failed. The year of 1870 then became marked as the worst year in the history Cuban Freemasonry. == The massacre of San Juan de Wilson ==

Despite the fact that the Grand Lodge of Colón had maintained a neutral stance in the war, were highly affiliated with the Spanish monarchy, and were mostly ideologically against Cuba's independence from Spain: they were still Freemasons, and Freemasonry was still illegal. Ironically, it was this lodge, and not GOCA, that suffered one of the most brutal massacres at the hands of the Spanish colonial military during the entire war: the massacre of San Juan de Wilson. who was executed alongside his fellow Freemasons by the Spanish during the Ten Years' War. In 1870, tensions between the Spanish colonial authorities and the Cuban Masonic community escalated during the tenure of José Andrés Puente Badell, Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Colón. The Spanish government accused the fraternity of harboring clandestine elements sympathetic to the Cuban independence movement, particularly in Santiago de Cuba, where Freemasonry was alleged to be supporting insurgent activities. At this meeting, it was decided, without due process or legal justification, to arrest and summarily execute individuals deemed politically or ideologically suspicious. González Boet personally undertook this task. In the following days, a large number of residents of Santiago de Cuba, many of whom were Freemasons or associated with liberal causes, were denounced and detained. are remembered as the "Martyrs of San Juan de Wilson": • Buenaventura Bravo • Desiderio Hechavarría • José María Bravo • Diego Palacios • José Andrés Puente Badell • Diego Vinageras • Cosme Baldomero • Bernardo Cabezas • Joaquín Santiesteban • Juan F. Portuondo • Carlos Damery • Juan F. del Pozo • Manuel Camacho Commemorative ceremony and public backlash Following the execution of the Freemasons at San Juan de Wilson, Nicolás Domínguez Cowan, an active Freemason, proposed that Lodge San Andrés, which Puente had formerly led, conduct a memorial ceremony in his honor. Although the proposal received approval from the lodge's membership, it was also met with apprehension due to the political risks involved. The funeral ceremony was scheduled for March 5, 1870, at 6:30 p.m., and its purpose quickly became known to the broader public. On the evening of the event, more than 100 Freemasons assembled in the lodge temple. However, a large and increasingly hostile crowd gathered outside, shouting anti-Masonic slogans such as “¡Mueran los conspiradores!” and “¡Muerte al Consejo Cubano!” (“Death to the conspirators! Death to the Cuban Council!”). Upon receiving word that the mob was advancing, the Worshipful Master addressed the brethren, urging calm and resolve. He stated:“Do not be alarmed, my dear brethren. Our fate, whatever it may be, we must face with courage. We must save our charter above everything else.”While some members managed to flee, more than 40 men were detained by colonial authorities. During their imprisonment, the Masons openly acknowledged their affiliations and lodge roles. Brother Edward Godwin, an employee of the colonial customs service, successfully escaped with the charter and secured it at a fellow Mason's residence, preserving the legal and symbolic core of the lodge's identity. Ultimately, the Mayor of Santiago de Cuba ordered their release, citing the absence of any legal statute within the Spanish Penal Code that criminalized Freemasonry. After three days of imprisonment, the detained Masons were freed. Shortly thereafter, the official colonial newspaper published a decree ordering the re-incarceration of the recently released Masons, citing their failure to provide adequate bail. Demonstrating solidarity and adherence to legal order, all the individuals, including three who had already left Cuba, voluntarily returned to prison. While incarcerated during Easter, the brethren collectively raised $1,632 to refurbish a nearby Catholic chapel. Their contributions included new furnishings, a pew rug, and ceremonial candlesticks. This act garnered the admiration of both the presiding priest and the prison doctor, who subsequently lobbied colonial authorities for the Masons’ release. Upon the return of the Captain General to Havana, he was persuaded to authorize the prisoners’ release on bail. After spending approximately 100 days in custody, the group was liberated. == Structural changes during the Ten Years' War ==

The massacre at San Juan de Wilson changed everything: the members of the Grand Lodge of Colón had become more radicalized, and the members of GOCA recognized their shared sacrifice. However, Masonic authority on the island still remained fragmented. That same year, the Supreme Council established a Provincial Mother Lodge in Havana, prompting protest from the Grand Lodge. The Warrant for this Mother Lodge was later withdrawn, though the broader dispute between the Grand Lodge and Supreme Council continued. After failing to achieve the desired independence of action, it dissolved on August 28, 1874. Its Grand Master was the Spaniard Severino Fernández Mora, a doctor in the Military Health Service of the Spanish army, who, due to his activities and ideas, was forced by the colonial authorities to leave the island "within 24 hours. In 1875, the Gran Logia de Colón resumed its activities and reached an important agreement with the Supreme Council. The Grand Lodge would have exclusive control over Symbolic Masonry (blue lodges). The Supreme Council would oversee the higher degrees. This agreement allowed Freemasonry to reorganize and grow again, but confusion persisted. On May 23, 1875, a Second Provincial Mother Lodge was established in Havana, with a broader base of support than its predecessor. There is little doubt that both initiatives stemmed from members formerly active in GOCA Freemasonry, as well as factions within the Colón Lodge that held views differing from those of the Grand Lodge leadership headquartered in Santiago de Cuba. One of the main points of contention was the perceived ineffectiveness of maintaining the central authority of Cuban Freemasonry far from Havana, the country's political and economic capital. Lausanne Convention That same year, the Supreme Council of Colón dispatched two delegates, David Elías Pierre and Benjamín Odio, to the Convention of Supreme Councils of the Scottish Rite, held in Lausanne, Switzerland. There, the Cuban representatives became signatories of the Pact of Confederation of the Supreme Regular Councils of the World. The event resonated strongly in Cuba for two key reasons. First, the Cuban delegation was accepted, whereas Spain's was rejected due to the disorganization of Spanish Freemasonry, which made it impossible to recognize one representative body without excluding others. Second, the pact established new Masonic principles that had far-reaching consequences, particularly in the political sphere. While Scottish Rite Freemasonry had traditionally defined itself as apolitical in practice, in reality it had not remained immune to the political upheavals of the time. Following the Lausanne Convention, however, Cuban Freemasonry underwent a redefinition: it adopted a philanthropic and fraternal character not only in theory but also in its practical social engagement. One notable shift was the replacement of politically charged slogans, such as the French revolutionary motto Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, with the more neutral principles of Brotherly Love, Relief, and Truth, in alignment with Anglo-American Masonic traditions. This ideological transformation was clearly articulated in 1875 by Francisco de Paula Rodríguez, one of the most influential Cuban Freemasons of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Reflecting on the change, he stated:“Because of that presumptuous error of attributing a political role to the Institution, we brought upon ourselves constant threats and persecution. We have learned much from this experience. Instead of 'Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,’ a profoundly political motto, we have returned to the values upheld in England and the United States: ‘Brotherly Love, Relief, and Truth.’”This shift did not reduce the institution's social relevance. On the contrary, it facilitated the expansion of Freemasonry by attracting individuals who, while unwilling to be associated with political activism, fully supported its social ideals, cultural aspirations, and philanthropic mission. At the same time, North American influence within Cuban Freemasonry declined, as the institution came to be shaped increasingly by a strong Hispanic cultural foundation and the emergence of distinctly Cuban intellectual traditions. Aurelio Almeida y González In 1876, Aurelio Almeida y González, a prominent adherent to the ideas of Vicente Antonio de Castro and widely regarded as the architect of the definitive structure and projection of Cuban Freemasonry, initiated a transformative move that some Masonic historians have described as a "coup d’état" against the existing Colón Freemasonry. At the time, Almeida was one of the leading figures within the Second Provincial Mother Lodge of Havana. Almeida embarked on a tour of the United States, where he successfully secured the support of major North American Masonic bodies. Following this, a telegram was sent to Havana, and shortly thereafter, on July 28, 1876, the Provincial Mother Lodge announced its self-dissolution. Merely days later, on August 1, with great fanfare, representatives from 13 lodges met in Havana and proclaimed the establishment of a new independent Masonic institution: the Grand Lodge of the Island of Cuba, a body that deliberately excluded the higher or “Scottish Rite” degrees. This development reintroduced a dual structure within Cuban Freemasonry, further complicated by the simultaneous operation of lodges affiliated with various Spanish Masonic obediences. The new body created under Almeida's leadership immediately undertook a comprehensive reorganization of the lodges and initiated diplomatic efforts to establish fraternal relations with other Masonic jurisdictions abroad. Its efforts quickly bore fruit: the new Grand Lodge received official recognition not only from the Grand Lodges of the United States, but also from the Spanish Masonic body led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. Effectively, this institution represented a reorganization of GOCA, now under a regular Masonic framework, bearing a new name and distanced from direct political affiliations and activities. This organization represented, in effect, a reconstitution of the former Grand Orient of Cuba and the Antilles (GOCA), now operating under a new name, with regular Masonic status, and without the overt political affiliations that had previously characterized it. Rather than engaging in direct political activity, both institutions began to emphasize values that contributed to the formation of a modern Cuban national identity. These included a commitment to secularism, the promotion of free intellectual inquiry, and the advocacy of a broad liberal tradition grounded more in ideological principles than in political partisanship. The broader political climate of the time, shaped by the Spanish Restoration and a series of partial reforms and freedoms intended to pacify the island following the end of the Ten Years' War, provided fertile ground for this evolution. Both Masonic movements, the Colón Freemasonry and the Grand Lodge of the Island of Cuba, began to converge in a shared cultural mission, emphasizing the cultivation of values that would come to define Cuban national identity: free thought, secular social values, and a broad, ideologically driven liberalism, more intellectual in nature than explicitly political. On November 24, 1876, the Grand Lodge of the Island of Cuba and the Supreme Council of Colón formalized their reconciliation by signing what became known as the Treaty of Peace and Friendship. This foundational agreement, rooted in the principles established by the Universal Council and the Convention of Lausanne, has been reaffirmed in all subsequent Cuban Masonic constitutions and codes. The treaty marked a significant reorganization of internal Masonic structures in Cuba, notably diminishing the influence of mystical, aristocratic, and authoritarian elements that had previously characterized portions of the institution. As a result, the significance traditionally ascribed to the higher degrees was substantially reduced. Under the terms of the treaty, the Supreme Council of Colón formally recognized the Grand Lodge as the “regular, competent, and sovereign” authority over all lodges practicing the first three Masonic or symbolic degrees. In reciprocity, the Grand Lodge acknowledged the Supreme Council's exclusive jurisdiction over the higher degrees, from the fourth to the 33rd. Both bodies were granted complete autonomy, each operating under its own set of laws and regulations, without subordination to the other. This accord is widely regarded as a model for resolving institutional conflict within Freemasonry and is considered one of the most effective instruments for fostering unity and fraternal cooperation among Cuban Masons. By the end of 1876, three rival Grand Lodges were claiming legitimacy: • The original Gran Logia de Colón in Santiago de Cuba. • The Gran Logia de Cuba in Havana. • The Gran Logia de Colón in Havana. Internal conflicts within the Grand Lodge of Colón persisted throughout the 1870s, primarily manifesting in tensions between lodges in the western region of the island and the leadership headquartered in Santiago de Cuba. The western lodges, represented most prominently by José Fernández Pellón y Castellanos, advocated for a relocation of the Grand Lodge's seat to Havana. Acting on behalf of 27 western lodges, Fernández Pellón successfully obtained approval for this transfer, while the Supreme Council remained based in Santiago de Cuba. Given that the Grand Lodge oversaw the symbolic lodges, which constituted the majority of Masonic workshops on the island, the relocation to Havana reflected the growing centralization of Cuban Freemasonry in the political and economic capital. Nevertheless, some eastern lodges rejected the move and continued to uphold the authority of the Grand Lodge of Colón in Santiago. On July 20, 1877, a new Grand Lodge of Colón was officially proclaimed in Havana. Its leadership was dominated by a coalition of figures aligned with the liberal reformist movement then gaining prominence in Cuban political life. This same faction would go on to establish the Liberal Party in 1878, which later adopted the name Autonomist Party. Despite ideological differences, Masonic lodges under this structure facilitated collaboration between reformists and advocates of full independence, united in their concern for the transformation and modernization of colonial Cuba. The Grand Master of the Havana-based Grand Lodge of Colón was , a key figure in the emerging Autonomist Party, where he served as both organizer and secretary. Meanwhile, the Grand Lodge of the Island of Cuba, under the leadership of Aurelio Almeida y González, had achieved greater institutional stability and coherence than its regionalist counterpart. Almeida promulgated a comprehensive Masonic Code, unprecedented in Cuban Freemasonry, which later served as a model for Masonic organizations across the Spanish-speaking world. Under his guidance, the Grand Lodge of Cuba also extended its influence internationally, authorizing the establishment of lodges in Spain. Among Almeida's most influential contributions to Masonic literature were El consultor del masón (The Mason's Consultant) and Jurisprudencia masónica (Masonic Jurisprudence), both widely disseminated throughout Latin American Masonic circles. In El consultor del masón, Almeida included the liturgies originally composed by Vicente Antonio de Castro for the Grand Orient of Cuba and the Antilles, thereby reinforcing a doctrinal continuity within Cuban Freemasonry while adapting it to the evolving cultural and political context. == Conclusion of the Ten Years' War and the formation of the United Grand Lodge of Colón and the Island of Cuba ==

In 1878, the conclusion of the Ten Years’ War coincided with the emergence of formal political organizations on the island. That same year, the first political parties in Cuban history were established. Among them, the most prominent was the Liberal Party, later renamed the Autonomist Party. Despite its name and aspirations, the party initially wielded limited political influence. Nonetheless, it quickly became a central platform for Cuba's reformist and moderate political sectors. == Cuban interwar years ==

In the final decades of the 19th century, Freemasonry played a significant role in shaping Cuban intellectual and political life. Many leading figures of the period, whether aligned with autonomist or independence causes, were Freemasons. Membership rolls from various lodges reveal a broad representation of Cuba's professional and intellectual elite, including journalists, physicians, engineers, pharmacists, educators, and lawyers. The core values promoted by the institution, freedom of conscience, freedom of the press, freedom of association, secular education, and civil control over institutions such as marriage and burial, formed part of a shared civic and cultural agenda among those advocating for the transformation of colonial Cuban society. Freemasonry's emphasis on secular and liberal principles placed it in ideological opposition to the Catholic Church, which had traditionally exercised strong social and moral authority. However, many Freemasons remained personally faithful to Catholic teachings. The decline of the Church's influence in urban areas was noted by religious authorities themselves. In 1880, Bishop Ramón Fernández Piérola of Havana lamented that out of approximately 200,000 residents in the capital, fewer than 3,000 regularly attended Mass, attributing this decline in part to the proliferation of Masonic lodges in the city. The link between Freemasonry and Cuban independence movements is complex. The initial 1868 uprising, which marked the beginning of the Ten Years’ War, had ties to the GOCA. Following its dissolution, the surviving lodges reorganized under the Grand Lodge of the Island of Cuba. Many former GOCA members either perished in the war or entered exile, where they formed part of a broader Masonic diaspora. These exiled Freemasons contributed significantly to independence movements of the 1880s and 1890s, though their political activities often occurred in non-Masonic contexts and in alliance with non-Masons, particularly through organizations such as the Cuban Revolutionary Party. Domestically, many Masons who remained in Cuba continued to participate in lodges, which became venues for cultural and civic engagement rather than overt political agitation. The reorganization and consolidation of Cuban Freemasonry under a unified Grand Lodge allowed for a clearer articulation of a national Masonic vision, one that included both reformist and separatist elements. During the early 1880s, autonomist ideas gained relative prominence within Masonic circles, reflecting broader political and intellectual currents that emphasized gradual reform over revolutionary rupture. The autonomist strategy, seeking "evolution rather than revolution", was framed not as an abandonment of nationalist aspirations but as a pragmatic response to colonial intransigence. Freemasonry's influence extended into the cultural and educational spheres. Lodges in major Cuban cities founded libraries, schools, lecture halls, and journals. They promoted scientific inquiry, literary activity, and secular education. Three Havana lodges, Amor Fraternal, San Andrés, and Plus Ultra, were especially active in cultural and intellectual life. Distinguished members included Antonio Govín (Grand Master), Rafael Montoro (Venerable Master of Plus Ultra), Aurelio Almeida, José Antonio Cortina, José Fernández Pellón, , Claudio Vermay (son of painter Jean Baptiste Vermay), Rafael Fernández de Castro, Aurelio Miranda, and Enrique José Varona. Two of the most influential Cuban periodicals of the era, Revista Cubana and Revista de Cuba, were edited by prominent Freemasons José Antonio Cortina and Enrique José Varona. These journals published a wide range of content, from legal and philosophical essays to literary and scientific studies, including discussions of Darwinian theory, Hegelian aesthetics, and historical reinterpretation. They challenged conservative, colonial-era ideas and advocated for a modern, secular, and democratic Cuban society grounded in scientific rationalism and civic morality. Masonic lodges, lyceums, and cultural societies became key spaces for the articulation of these new values. However, despite their progressive orientation, they were limited in their ability to dismantle entrenched social hierarchies. While they offered a platform for forward-thinking elites, the class divisions of Cuban society remained largely intact. In 1886, slavery was finally abolished in Cuba. == The Cuban War of Independence ==