a
Srivijayan inscription used in ceremonial allegiance ritual (7th century) In
Maritime Southeast Asia, the
Srivijaya kingdom on
Sumatra developed into the dominant power by the 5th century CE. Its capital
Palembang became a major seaport and functioned as an
entrepôt on the
Spice Route between India and China. Srivijaya was also a notable centre of
Vajrayāna Buddhist learning and influence. Around the 6th century CE,
Malay merchants began sailing to Srivijaya, where goods were transported directly in Sumatran ports. The winds of the
Northeast Monsoon during October to December prevented sailing ships from proceeding directly from the
Indian Ocean to the
South China Sea, as did the
Southwest Monsoon during July to September, forcing trade routes to pass through Srivijaya. However, the kingdom's wealth and influence began to fade when advancements in nautical technology in the 10th century enabled Chinese and Indian merchants to ship cargo directly between their countries. These advancements also aided the
Chola dynasty of
Tamilakam,
Southern India, in carrying out a series of destructive attacks on Srivijaya, effectively ending Palembang's
entrepôt position in the Indo-Chinese trade route. As the influence of the Srivijaya kingdom faded by about the 13th century, Sumatra came to be ruled by a kaleidoscope of Buddhist kingdoms for the next two centuries, including the
Malayu,
Pannai, and
Dharmasraya kingdoms. gate in
Trowulan, the capital of
Majapahit (14th century) To the southeast of Sumatra,
West Java was ruled by the
Hindu Sunda Kingdom () after the fall of the
Tarumanagara, while
Central and
East Java were dominated by a myriad of competing agrarian kingdoms including the
Mataram kingdom (716–1016),
Kadiri (1042–1222),
Singhasari (1222–1292), and
Majapahit (1293–). In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, the Śailendra dynasty that ruled the Mataram kingdom built a number of massive monuments in Central Java, including the
Sewu and
Borobudur Buddhist temples. According to the
Deśavarṇana, an
Old Javanese poem completed in 1365, vassal states of the
Majapahit Empire spread throughout much of today's Indonesia, making it possibly the largest empire ever to exist in Southeast Asia, though the true character of its control over these territories is unclear. The empire declined in the early 16th century after the rise of
Islamic states in coastal Java, the
Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra. ,
Philippines (c. 900 CE) In the
Philippines, the
Laguna Copperplate Inscription dating from 900 CE is the earliest known calendar-dated document from the islands. It relates a debt granted from a
maginoo (royalty) who lived in the
Tagalog city-state of
Tondo which is now part of
Manila area. The document mentions several contemporary states in the area, including
Mataram kingdom in
Java. ,
Khmer Empire (12th century) The
Khmer Empire covered much of
mainland Southeast Asia from the early 9th until the 15th century, during which time a
sophisticated architecture was developed, exemplified in the structures of the capital city
Angkor. Situated in modern-day
Vietnam, the kingdoms of
Đại Việt and
Champa were rivals to the Khmer Empire in the region. The
Mon kingdom of
Dvaravati was another major regional presence, first appearing in records around the 6th century CE. By the 10th century, however, Dvaravati had come under the influence of the Khmer. Nearby,
Thai tribes conquered the
Chao Phraya River valley of modern-day central Thailand around the 12th century and established the
Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th century and the
Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century. ,
First Toungoo Empire (16th century) By the mid-16th century, the
Burmese First Toungoo Empire was one of the largest, strongest and richest empires in Southeast Asia. At its peak, it was the dominant power in mainland Southeast Asia, exercising "suzerainty from
Manipur to the
Cambodian
marches and from the borders of
Arakan to
Yunnan". The empire included
Mon and
Shan states and annexed territories in the
Kingdom of Lan Na,
Kingdom of Laos, and the
Ayutthaya kingdom. Early European accounts describe the lower part of the Toungoo Empire as having possessed 34 excellent ports that facilitated considerable trade in a variety of goods. The empire supplied the port of
Malacca with rice and other foodstuffs, along with luxury goods such as
rubies,
sapphires,
musk,
lac,
benzoin, and gold to trade. In return, the lower part of the empire imported Chinese manufactures and Indonesian spices through its ports. Additionally, merchants from West Asia and India exchanged large quantities of
Indian textiles for Burmese luxury products and eastern goods. The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century further strengthened the empire's position, both commercially and militarily.
Spread of Islam in
Aceh. This northern tip region of
Sumatra was the earliest place where Islam was established in Southeast Asia since the
Pasai Sultanate in the 13th century CE. By the 8th century CE, less than 200 years after the
establishment of Islam in
Arabia, the first Islamic traders and merchants began to appear in
maritime Southeast Asia. However,
Islam did not play a notable role anywhere in
mainland Southeast Asia until the 13th century. Instead, widespread and gradual replacement of
Hinduism by
Theravāda Buddhism reflected a shift to a more personal, introverted spirituality acquired through individual ritual activities and effort. In addressing the issue of how Islam was introduced into Southeast Asia, historians have elaborated various routes from Arabia to
India and then from India to
Southeast Asia. Of these, two seem to take prominence: either Arabian traders and scholars who did not live or settle in India spread Islam directly to maritime Southeast Asia, or Arab traders that had been settling in coastal India and
Sri Lanka for generations did. Muslim traders from India (
Gujarat) and converts of
South Asian descent are variously considered to play a major role. A number of sources propose the
South China Sea as another route of Islamic introduction to Southeast Asia. Arguments for this hypothesis include the following: • Extensive trade between Arabia and China before the 10th century is well documented and has been corroborated by archaeological evidence (see, for example,
Belitung shipwreck). • During the
Mongol conquest and the subsequent rule of the
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), hundreds of thousands of Muslims entered China. In
Yunnan, Islam was propagated and commonly embraced. •
Kufic grave stones in
Champa, modern-day
Vietnam, are indices of an early and permanent Islamic community in mainland Southeast Asia. • The founder of the
Demak Sultanate in
Java was of Sino-Javanese origin. •
Hui mariner
Zheng He proposed ancient Chinese architecture as the stylistic basis for the oldest Javanese
mosques during his 15th-century visit to
Demak,
Banten, and the
Red Mosque of Panjunan in
Cirebon,
West Java. of the
Menara Kudus Mosque, a Javanese
Majapahit-style red brick tower, with
Mughal-style building in the background, exemplifying the adoption and syncretism of local elements within Islam practiced in the region Unlike in other Islamic regions, Islam developed in Southeast Asia in a distinctly
syncretic manner that allowed the continuation and inclusion of elements and ritual practices of
Hinduism,
Buddhism and ancient Pan-East Asian
animism. Most principalities developed highly distinctive cultures as a result of centuries of active participation in cultural exchange situated at the cross-roads of the
Maritime Silk Road coming from across the
Indian Ocean in the West and the
South China Sea in the East. Cultural and institutional adoption was a creative and selective process, in which foreign elements were incorporated into a local synthesis. Unlike some other "
Islamised" regions like
North Africa,
Iberia, the
Middle East and later northern
India, Islamic faith in Southeast Asia was not enforced in the wake of
territorial conquests, but because of trade routes. In this way, the Islamisation of Southeast Asia is more akin to that of
Turkic Central Asia,
sub-Saharan Africa,
southern India and
northwest China. There are various records of lay Muslim missionaries, scholars and mystics, particularly
Sufis, who were active in peacefully proselytizing in Southeast Asia.
Java, for example, received Islam by nine men, referred to as the "
Wali Sanga" or "Nine Saints," although the historical identity of such people is almost impossible to determine. The foundation of the first Islamic kingdom in
Sumatra, the
Samudera Pasai Sultanate, took place during the 13th century. The conversion of the remnants of the Buddhist
Srivijaya empire that once controlled trade in much of Southeast Asia, in particular the
Strait of Malacca, marked a religious turning point with the conversion of the strait into an Islamic water. With the fall of Srivijaya, the way was open for effective and widespread proselytization and the establishment of Muslim trading centres. Many modern Malays view the
Sultanate of Malacca, which existed from the 15th to the early 16th century, as the first political entity of contemporary
Malaysia. The idea of equality before God for the
Ummah (the people of God) and a personal religious effort through regular prayer in Islam could have been more appealing than a perceived
fatalism in Hinduism at the time. However, Islam also taught obedience and submission, which could have helped guarantee that the social structure of a converted people or political entity saw less fundamental changes.
Chinese treasure voyages in
Malacca By the end of the 14th century,
Ming China had conquered
Yunnan in the South, yet it had lost control of the
Silk Road after the fall of the Mongol
Yuan dynasty. The ruling
Yongle Emperor resolved to focus on the Indian Ocean sea routes, seeking to consolidate the ancient
Imperial Tributary System, establish greater diplomatic and military presence, and widen the Chinese sphere of influence. He ordered the construction of a huge
trade and representation fleet that, between 1405 and 1433, undertook several voyages into Southeast Asia, India, the
Persian Gulf, and as far as East Africa. Under the leadership of
Zheng He, hundreds of naval vessels of then unparalleled size, grandeur, and technological advancement and manned by sizeable military contingents, ambassadors, merchants, artists and scholars repeatedly visited major Southeast Asian principalities. The individual fleets engaged in a number of clashes with pirates and occasionally supported various royal contenders. However, pro-expansionist voices at the court in
Beijing lost influence after the 1450s, and the voyages were discontinued. The protraction of the ritualistic ceremonies and scanty travels of emissaries in the Tributary System alone was not sufficient to develop firm and lasting Chinese commercial and political influence in the region, especially during the impending onset of highly competitive global trade. During the
Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty,
Liu Daxia, who later became the Shangshu of the Ministry of War, hid or burned the archives of
Ming treasure voyages. ==Early modern era==