While there are certainly texts from the medieval period that denote the uses of herbs, there has been a long-standing debate between scholars as to the actual motivations and understandings that underline the creation of
herbal documents during the medieval period. The first point of view dictates that the information presented in these medieval texts were merely copied from their classical equivalents without much thought or understanding. Notable texts utilized in this time period include
Bald's Leechbook, the
Lacnunga, the peri didaxeon,
Herbarium Apulei, De Taxone, and Medicina de Quadrupedibus, while the most popular during this time period were the Ex Herbis Femininis, the Herbarius, and works by
Dioscorides. Dioscorides was a Greek physician and botanist in 50 AD who devoted his life's work to understanding plants and the use of their properties in medicine. In the Middle Ages, Dioscoride's work was the primary resource about plants and the use of their properties. Dioscorides was privileged enough to have writing skills and he is an important figure in herbalism because he traveled, studied, and wrote his knowledge about herbalism. Originally these texts were five volumes written in Greek, but then later Dioscorides transcribed them in Latin, and they are called "De materia medica". These texts written by Dioscorides are important because they are the first physical text about herbalism in the 5th-century and this text would be the base of knowledge about herbalism in western Europe at that time. The Herbal medical documents provided sufficient information about herbs, their colors, and their uses. Most knowledge about herbalism comes from the Middle East and Asia, where Discordies traveled back and forth for research to conduct new studies on herbalism. During his research, he wrote about many other foreign herbs and plants that came from Asia. This was an important contribution not only to the growing knowledge of herbalism but to trade throughout Europe from the early 5th century to the 10th century. Dioscorides found these different herbs fascinating for their healing powers because he had never seen them before, and it sparked an idea of how these herbs could make a new impact on natural medicine. When he traveled to the West he learned about dried portions of herbs, better known as the spice trade. Dioscorides wrote these medical documents, and this brought herbalists together comprehensively during the Middle Ages. The plants grew primarily in the southern part of Europe, such as Italy and Greece. A unique property is that these herbs were not only grown on land but a new variety of herbs could be found closer to the sea. In the early 5th century without documentation, it was difficult to have concrete information about these herbs and their useful properties that were not documented by historians. Discordies volumes provided information about the useful properties and warnings about poisonous plants and their geographical extent. Many herbalists did not know how crucial it was to note that certain herbs could only grow in certain areas. This is why the spice trade played a major role in the medical development during medieval times because certain herbs that had healing properties had to be traded due to the lack of socioeconomic or climatic factors in that region. This would significantly expand the knowledge of scholars unfamiliar with plants that grew in other regions. The writing and knowledge of Dioscorides volumes helped identify each plant and described its properties, use, and color. A few examples of foreign herbs/plants that were unfamiliar in the west are citrus, ginger, echinacea, and goldenseal. These examples were not native to places like Britain and only grew in Asia. Nevertheless, these herbs/plants were grown and native to Asia, but the spice led to many herbs and plants being important from the East, and that expanded new knowledge to herbalists. The most essential herbs that were used in the Middle Ages are elderberry, wild sage, rosehips, plantain, calendula, comfrey, yarrow, nettle, and many more. Each of these herbs has specific properties that herbalists used to cure their patients, not unlike natural remedies such as healing teas and ointments used in today's age to treat common colds and minor injuries. The ingredients may be altered but the origin is from herbalists in the Middle Ages. The majority of the herbs that were gathered and used in the Middle Ages were wild-grown, wild-grown means herbs that were not processed and cultivated straight from the earth. Those that were studied would be somewhat processed to see the results of their beneficial properties. Herbs that typically grew in the wild were accessible to the local population therefore, herbalism was a field not only dominated by scholars. Not only did Herbalists find the use of wild-grown herbs, but they also found the use of natural herbs that acted as drugs for major surgeries or for psychoactive use. Cannabis was first sold in Egypt and then imported to countries such as Great Britain, France, and Italy. The use of cannabis became larger when they found its healing properties for anxiety, pain, etc. Herbalists also used opioids for pain remedies. Not only did herbalists use herbs for minor illnesses and injuries, they also used herbs for drugs, major surgery, and psychoactive use. The late Middle Ages in the 10th century showed an increase in herbs being used in different forms. Interest in herbalism only increased after the 10th century, all examples are in use today: essential oils, ointments, etc. These new forms of medicines were both used for treating illness and for daily use.
Benedictine monasteries were the primary source of medical knowledge in
Europe and
England during the
Early Middle Ages. However, most of these monastic scholars' efforts were focused on translating and copying ancient Greco-Roman and Arabic works, rather than creating substantial new information and practices. Many Greek and Roman writings on medicine, as on other subjects, were preserved by hand copying of manuscripts in monasteries. The monasteries thus tended to become local centers of medical knowledge, and their
herb gardens provided the raw materials for simple treatment of common disorders.One of the most famous women in the herbal tradition was
Hildegard of Bingen. A 12th-century Benedictine nun, she wrote a medical text called
Causae et Curae. During this time, herbalism was mainly practiced by women, particularly among Germanic tribes. At the same time, folk medicine in the home and village continued uninterrupted, supporting numerous wandering and settled herbalists. Among these were the "wise-women" and "wise men", who prescribed herbal remedies often along with spells, enchantments, divination and advice. There were three major sources of information on healing at the time including the Arabian School, Anglo-Saxon leechcraft, and Salerno. A great scholar of the Arabian School was
Avicenna, who wrote
The Canon of Medicine which became the standard medical reference work of the Arab world. "
The Canon of Medicine is known for its introduction of systematic experimentation and the study of physiology, the discovery of contagious diseases and sexually transmitted diseases, the introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of infectious diseases, the introduction of experimental medicine, clinical trials, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases. ...
The Canon includes a description of some 760 medicinal plants and the medicine that could be derived from them." With Leechcraft, though bringing to mind part of their treatments, leech was the English term for medical practitioner. Salerno was a famous school in Italy centered around health and medicine. A student of the school was
Constantine the African, credited with bringing Arab medicine to Europe. ==Translation of herbals==