Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states. In contrast to most of
Central,
Southern and
Southeast Africa,
West Africa is not populated by
Bantu-speaking peoples.
Prehistory from the
Dahomey region of
Benin West African populations were considerably mobile and interacted with one another throughout the
population history of West Africa. Acheulean tool-using
archaic humans may have dwelled throughout West Africa since at least between 780,000 BP and 126,000 BP (
Middle Pleistocene). During the
Pleistocene,
Middle Stone Age peoples (e.g.,
Iwo Eleru people, possibly
Aterians), who dwelled throughout West Africa between
MIS 4 and
MIS 2, were gradually replaced by incoming
Late Stone Age peoples, who migrated into West Africa as an increase in humid conditions resulted in the subsequent expansion of the
West African forest.
West African hunter-gatherers occupied western
Central Africa (e.g.,
Shum Laka) earlier than 32,000 BP, and migrated northward between 12,000 BP and 8000 BP as far as Mali, Burkina Faso, figure wearing a
Barbary sheep-styled mask During the
Holocene,
Niger-Congo speakers independently created pottery in
Ounjougou, Mali – the earliest
pottery in Africa – by at least 9400 BCE, migrated into the Central Sahara, Hunters in the Central Sahara farmed, stored, and cooked undomesticated central Saharan
flora, underwent domestication of
antelope, and
domesticated and shepherded
Barbary sheep. Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not. As a result of increasing
aridification of the
Green Sahara, Central Saharan
hunter-gatherers and cattle
herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the
Niger River and
Chad Basin of West Africa. In 2000 BCE, "
Thiaroye Woman", also known as the "
Venus of Thiaroye", Though possibly developed as early as 5000 BCE, as evidenced by depictions of the
West African script on
Ikom monoliths at
Ikom, in
Nigeria. Niger-Congo speakers domesticated the
helmeted guineafowl between 5500 BP and 1300 BP; remaining West African hunter-gatherers, many of whom dwelt in the
forest-savanna region, were ultimately acculturated and admixed into the larger groups of West African
agriculturalists, akin to the migratory
Bantu-speaking agriculturalists and their
encounters with
Central African hunter-gatherers. The
iron industry, in both smelting and forging for tools and weapons, appeared in West Africa by about 2600–1200 BC. Iron smelting facilities in Niger and Nigeria have been radiocarbon dated to 500 to 1000 BC, and more recently in Nigeria from 2000 BC. Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in the
Nsukka region of southeast
Nigeria in what is now
Igboland: dating to 2000 BC at the site of
Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009)
Iron metallurgy may have been independently developed in the
Nok culture between the 9th century BCE and 550 BCE. More recently, Bandama and Babalola (2023) have indicated that iron metallurgical development occurred 2631 BCE – 2458 BCE at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136 BCE – 1921 BCE at Oboui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895 BCE – 1370 BCE at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297 BCE – 1051 BCE at Dekpassanware, in Togo. Saharan
pastoral culture was intricate, as evidenced by fields of
tumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions. The Tichitt Tradition of southeastern
Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. Tichitt culture at
Dhar Néma,
Dhar Tagant, Dhar Tichitt, and
Dhar Walata included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure,
farming of
cereals,
metallurgy, numerous
funerary tombs, and a
rock art tradition. At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata,
pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid the
Neolithic. Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition, and the
Malian Lakes Region, which includes
Tondidarou, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition. The
urban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale,
complexly organized society in
West Africa, Farming of crops (e.g.,
millet) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt. Thereafter, the
Ghana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE.
Nok culture may have emerged in 1500 cal BCE and continued to persist until 1 cal BCE. as part of a complex
funerary culture that may have included practices such as feasting. A Nok sculpture portrays two individuals, along with their
goods, in a dugout canoe. The Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe may indicate that Nok people used dugout canoes to transport
cargo, along
tributaries (e.g.,
Gurara River) of the
Niger River, and exchanged them in a regional
trade network. Latter
artistic traditions of West Africa –
Bura of Niger (3rd century CE – 10th century CE), Koma of
Ghana (7th century CE – 15th century CE),
Igbo-Ukwu of Nigeria (9th century CE – 10th century CE),
Jenne-Jeno of Mali (11th century CE – 12th century CE), and
Ile Ife of Nigeria (11th century CE – 15th century CE) – may have been shaped by the earlier West African
clay terracotta tradition of the Nok culture. Mountaintops are where the majority of Nok settlement sites are found. Additionally, a
megalithic stone
fence was constructed around the
enclosed settlement site of Kochio.
Iron metallurgy may have been independently developed in the
Nok culture between the 9th century BCE and 550 BCE. Based on stylistic similarities with the Nok terracottas, the bronze figurines of the
Yoruba Ife Empire and the
Bini kingdom of Benin may also be continuations of the traditions of the earlier Nok culture.
Mouhoun Bend At
Mouhoun Bend,
Burkina Faso, people dwelled in a community of residences that housed multiple families in the second quarter of the 1st millennium BCE, which may have also been part of a pre-existing marketplace system of
trade (e.g.,
salt) and
technology transfer between agricultural communities (e.g.,
Jenne-Jeno,
Kintampo, Rim) throughout
West Africa that persisted from the 2nd millennium BCE to the early 1st millennium CE. In addition to
farming undomesticated crops and maintaining domesticated animals, the people of Mouhoun Bend engaged in
hunting and
fishing as well as
iron, salt, and
pottery production. Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between
Round Head paintings and modern
Sub-Saharan African cultures. Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with the oldest ceramics found in
Djenné-Djenno, which have been dated to 250 BCE.
Serer people The
prehistoric and ancient history of the
Serer people of modern-day
Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years. Much of the present knowledge of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer traditions rooted in the
Serer religion. Material
relics have been found in different Serer countries, most of which refer to the past origins of Serer families, villages, and Serer kingdoms. Some of these Serer relics included
gold,
silver, and metals. The objects found in Serer countries are divided into two types, the remnants of earlier populations and the
laterite megaliths carved in circular structures with stones directed toward the East. The latter are found only in small parts of the ancient Serer
kingdom of Saloum. They are described below.
Senegambian stone circles The
Senegambian stone circles are
megaliths found in
Gambia north of
Janjanbureh and in central
Senegal. The megaliths found in Senegal and Gambia are sometimes divided into four large sites: Sine Ngayene and Wanar in Senegal, and Wassu and Kerbatch in the Central River Region in Gambia. Researchers are not certain when these monuments were built, but the generally accepted range is between the third century BCE and the sixteenth century CE. Archaeologists have also found pottery sherds, human burials, and some grave goods and metals. The monuments consist of what were originally upright blocks or pillars (some have collapsed), made of mostly
laterite with smooth surfaces. The construction of the
stone monuments shows evidence of a prosperous and organised society based on the amount of labour required to build such structures. The builders of these megaliths are unknown, but some believe that they were
Serer people. This hypothesis comes from the fact that the Serer still use funerary houses like those found at Wanar.
Bura culture The Bura culture was located in the Middle
Niger River valley of
Niger and
Burkina Faso. More specifically, the
Iron Age civilization exemplified by the Bura culture was centered in the southwestern region of modern Niger and in the southeast region of modern Burkina Faso (previously known as
Upper Volta). Based on
radio carbon dating, the
Sahelian Bura-Asinda culture may have begun in the 3rd century CE and lasted until the 13th century CE. Along with nearby terracotta jars used in
ritual sacrifice, hooked
arrowheads made of
iron were also found. Beads made of
quartzite, nose rings made from
brass, and bracelets made from iron or brass were found on human remains located beneath the terracotta jars.
Ghana The
Ghana Empire may have been an established kingdom as early as the 3rd century CE, founded among the
Soninke, a
Mandé people who lived at the crossroads of this new trade, around the city of
Kumbi Saleh. Ghana was first mentioned by Arab geographer
Al-Farazi in the late 8th century. After 800, the empire expanded rapidly, coming to dominate the entire western Sudan; at its height, the empire could field an army of 200,000 soldiers. Ghana was inhabited by urban dwellers and rural farmers. The urban dwellers included the administrators of the empire, who were
Muslim, and the
Ghana (king), who practised
traditional religion. Two towns existed, one where the Muslim administrators and
Berber-Arabs lived, which was connected by a stone-paved road to the king's residence. The rural dwellers lived in villages, which joined into broader polities that pledged loyalty to the
Ghana. The
Ghana was viewed as
divine, and his physical well-being reflected on the whole society. Ghana converted to
Islam around 1050, after conquering
Aoudaghost. The Ghana Empire grew wealthy by taxing the
trans-Saharan trade that linked
Tiaret and
Sijilmasa to Aoudaghost. Ghana controlled access to the goldfields of
Bambouk, southeast of
Koumbi Saleh. A percentage of salt and gold going through its territory was taken. The empire was not involved in production. In the 10th century, Islam was steadily growing in the region due to various influences, including internal dynastic struggles coupled with competing foreign interests (namely
Almoravid intervention). By the 11th century, Ghana was in decline. It was once thought that the sacking of Koumbi Saleh by Berbers under the
Almoravid dynasty in 1076 was the cause, but this is no longer accepted. Several alternative explanations are cited. One important reason is the transfer of the gold trade east to the
Niger River and the
Taghaza Trail, and Ghana's consequent economic decline. Another reason cited is political instability through rivalry among the different hereditary polities. The empire came to an end in 1230, when
Takrur in northern Senegal took over the capital.
Sosso The first successor to the Ghana Empire was that of the
Sosso, a
Takrur people who built their empire on the ruins of the old. Despite initial successes, the Sosso king
Soumaoro Kanté was defeated by the
Mandinka prince
Sundiata Keita at the
Battle of Kirina in 1240, toppling the Sosso and guaranteeing the supremacy of Sundiata's new
Mali Empire.
Mali at its greatest extent, c. 1350 depicted holding a
gold nugget from a 1395 map of
Africa and
Europe The
Mali Empire began in the 13th century CE, eventually creating a centralised state including most of West Africa. It originated when a
Mandé (Mandingo) leader,
Sundiata (Lord Lion) of the Keita clan, defeated
Soumaoro Kanté, king of the
Sosso or southern
Soninke, at the
Battle of Kirina in . Sundiata continued his conquest from the fertile forests and Niger Valley, east to the Niger Bend, north into the Sahara, and west to the Atlantic Ocean, absorbing the remains of the Ghana Empire. Sundiata took on the title of
mansa. He established the capital of his empire at
Niani. Although the salt and gold trade continued to be important to the Mali Empire,
agriculture and
pastoralism was also critical. The growing of
sorghum,
millet, and rice was a vital function. On the northern borders of the Sahel, grazing cattle, sheep, goats, and camels were major activities. Mandé society was organised around the village and land. A cluster of villages was called a
kafu, ruled by a
farma. The
farma paid tribute to the
mansa. A dedicated army of elite cavalry and infantry maintained order, commanded by the royal court. A formidable force could be raised from tributary regions, if necessary. grew into a city of scholars. Conversion to
Islam was a gradual process. The power of the
mansa depended on upholding traditional beliefs and a spiritual foundation of power. Sundiata initially kept Islam at bay. Later
mansas were devout Muslims but still acknowledged traditional deities and took part in traditional rituals and festivals, which were important to the Mandé. Islam became a court religion under Sundiata's son
Uli I (1225–1270).
Mansa Uli made a pilgrimage to
Mecca, becoming recognised within the Muslim world. The court was staffed with literate Muslims as secretaries and accountants. Muslim traveller
Ibn Battuta left vivid descriptions of the empire. The
University of Sankore, which began as the
Mosque of Sankore, served as an
organization of higher learning in
Timbuktu. The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of
Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of
Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as the
University of Timbuktu.
Mansa Musa's
hajj devalued gold in
Mamluk Egypt for a decade. He made a great impression on the minds of the Muslim and European world. He invited scholars and architects like
Ishal al-Tuedjin (al-Sahili) to further integrate Mali into the Islamic world.
Sonni Ali, a Songhai, began his conquest by capturing
Timbuktu in 1468 from the
Tuareg. He extended the empire to the North, deep into the desert, pushed the
Mossi further south of the Niger, and expanded southwest to
Djenné. His army consisted of cavalry and a fleet of canoes. Sonni Ali was not a Muslim, and he was portrayed negatively by
Berber-Arab scholars, especially for attacking Muslim Timbuktu. After his death in 1492, his heirs were deposed by his nephew and General
Muhammad Ture. the greatest conqueror of the Songhai empire. Muhammad Ture (1493–1528) founded the
Askiya dynasty,
askiya being the title of the king. He consolidated the conquests of Sonni Ali. Islam was used to extend his authority by declaring
jihad on the Mossi, reviving the trans-Saharan trade, and having the
Abbasid "shadow" caliph in
Cairo declare him as
caliph of Sudan. He established Timbuktu as a great center of Islamic learning. Muhammad Ture expanded the empire by pushing the Tuareg north, capturing
Aïr in the East, and capturing salt-producing
Taghaza. He brought the
Hausa states into the Songhay trading network. He further centralised the administration of the empire by selecting administrators from loyal servants and families and assigning them to conquered territories. They were responsible for raising local militias. Centralisation made Songhay very stable, even during dynastic disputes.
Leo Africanus left vivid descriptions of the empire under Askiya Muhammad. Askiya Muhammad was deposed by his son in 1528. After much rivalry, Muhammad Ture's last son
Askiya Daoud (1529–1582) assumed the throne. In 1591,
Morocco invaded the Songhai Empire under
Ahmad al-Mansur of the
Saadi dynasty to secure the goldfields of the Sahel. At the
Battle of Tondibi, the Songhai army was defeated. The Moroccans captured Djenné, Gao, and Timbuktu, but they were unable to secure the whole region. Askiya Nuhu and the Songhay army regrouped at
Dendi in the heart of Songhai territory where a spirited guerrilla resistance sapped the resources of the Moroccans, who were dependent upon constant resupply from Morocco. Songhai split into several states during the 17th century. Morocco found its venture unprofitable. The gold trade had been diverted to Europeans on the coast. Most of the trans-Saharan trade was now diverted east to
Bornu. Expensive equipment purchased with gold had to be sent across the Sahara, an unsustainable scenario. The Moroccans who remained married into the population and were referred to as
Arma or
Ruma. They established themselves at Timbuktu as a military caste with various
fiefs, independent from Morocco. Amid the chaos, other groups began to assert themselves, including the
Fulani of
Futa Tooro who encroached from the West. The
Bambara Empire, one of the states that broke from Songhai, sacked Gao. In 1737, the Tuareg massacred the
Arma.
Sokoto Caliphate The
Fulani were migratory people. They moved from
Mauritania and settled in
Futa Tooro,
Futa Djallon, and subsequently throughout the rest of West Africa. By the 14th century CE, they had converted to Islam. During the 16th century, they established themselves at
Macina in southern
Mali. During the 1670s, they declared
jihads on non-Muslims. Several states were formed from these jihadist wars, including
Bundu, the
Imamate of Futa Toro, the
Imamate of Futa Jallon, and the
Massina Empire. The most important of these states was the
Sokoto Caliphate or
Fulani Empire. In the city of
Gobir,
Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817) accused the
Hausa leadership of practising an impure version of Islam and of moral corruption. In 1804, he launched the
Fulani War as a
jihad among a population that was restless about high taxes and discontented with its leaders. Jihad fever swept northern
Nigeria, with strong support among both the Fulani and the Hausa. Usman created an empire that included parts of northern Nigeria,
Benin, and
Cameroon, with
Sokoto as its capital. He retired to teach and write and handed the empire to his son
Muhammed Bello. The Sokoto Caliphate lasted until 1903 when the British conquered northern Nigeria.
Forest empires and states Akan Kingdoms and emergence of Asante Empire Kente cloth patterns The
Akan speak a Kwa Language. The speakers of
Kwa languages are believed to have come from
East/
Central Africa, before settling in the
Sahel. By the 11th century, the Akan Kingdom of
Bonoman (Bono State) was established. Bonoman was a trading state created by the
Bono people. Bonoman was a medieval
Akan kingdom in what is now the
Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana and eastern
Ivory Coast. It is generally accepted as the origin of the subgroups of the Akan people who migrated out of the state at various times to create new Akan states in search of gold. The gold trade, which started to boom in Bonoman as early in the 12th century, was the genesis of Akan power and wealth in the region, beginning in the Middle Ages. During the 13th century, when the gold mines in modern-day Mali started to become depleted, Bonoman and later other Akan states began to rise to prominence as the major players in the gold trade. It was
Bonoman that begat several Akan kingdoms like
Mankessim,
Denkyira,
Akyem,
Akwamu and others. Later, the
Empire of Ashanti was founded. When and how the
Ashante got to their present location is debatable. What is known is that by the 17th century an Akan people were identified as living in a state called Kwaaman. The location of the state was north of
Lake Bosomtwe. The state's revenue was mainly derived from trading in gold and
kola nuts and clearing forest to plant
yams. They built towns between the
Pra and
Ofin rivers. They formed alliances for defence and paid tribute to
Denkyira, one of the more powerful Akan states at that time along with Adansi and
Akwamu. During the 16th century, Ashante society experienced sudden changes, including population growth because of cultivation of
New World plants such as
cassava and
maize and an increase in the gold trade between the coast and the north. By the 17th century,
Osei Kofi Tutu I (c. 1695–1717), with help of
Okomfo Anokye, unified what became the Ashante into a confederation with the
Golden Stool as a symbol of their unity and spirit. Osei Tutu engaged in a massive territorial expansion. He built up the Ashante army based on the
Akan state of
Akwamu, introducing new organisation and turning a disciplined militia into an effective fighting machine. In 1701, the Ashante conquered Denkyira, giving them access to the coastal trade with Europeans, especially the Dutch.
Opoku Ware I (1720–1745) engaged in further expansion, adding other southern Akan states to the growing empire. He turned north adding
Techiman, Banda,
Gyaaman, and
Gonja, states on the
Black Volta. Between 1744 and 1745,
Asantehene Opoku attacked the powerful northern state of Dagomba, gaining control of the important
Middle Niger trade routes.
Kusi Obodom (1750–1764) succeeded Opoku. He solidified all the newly won territories.
Osei Kwadwo (1777–1803) imposed administrative reforms that allowed the empire to be governed effectively and to continue its military expansion.
Osei Kwame Panyin (1777–1803),
Osei Tutu Kwame (1804–1807), and
Osei Bonsu (1807–1824) continued territorial consolidation and expansion. At its height, the Ashante Empire included most of present-day Ghana and large parts of
Côte d'Ivoire. The
Ashantehene inherited his position from his mother. He was assisted at the capital,
Kumasi, by a civil service of men talented in trade, diplomacy, and the military, with a head called the
Gyaasehene. Men from Arabia, Sudan, and Europe were employed in the civil service, all of them appointed by the
Ashantehene. At the capital and in other towns, the
ankobia or special police were used as bodyguards to the
Ashantehene, as sources of intelligence, and to suppress rebellion. Communication throughout the empire was maintained via a network of well-kept roads from the coast to the Middle Niger and linking together other trade cities. For most of the 19th century, the Ashante Empire remained a powerful force in West Africa. It was later annexed in 1900 by the
British Empire following four
Anglo-Ashanti wars.
Dahomey The
Dahomey Kingdom was founded in the early 17th century CE when the
Aja people of the
Allada kingdom moved northward and settled among the
Fon. They began to assert their power a few years later. In so doing they established the Kingdom of Dahomey, with its capital at
Agbome. King
Houegbadja (c. 1645–1685) organised Dahomey into a powerful centralised state. He declared all lands to be owned by the king and subject to taxation. Primogeniture in the kingship was established, neutralising all input from village chiefs. A "cult of kingship" was established. A captive slave would be sacrificed annually to honour the royal ancestors. During the 1720s, the slave-trading states of
Whydah and Allada were taken, giving Dahomey direct access to the slave coast and trade with Europeans. King
Agadja (1708–1740) attempted to end the slave trade by keeping the slaves on plantations producing
palm oil, but the European profits on slaves and Dahomey's dependency on firearms were too great. In 1730, under king Agaja, Dahomey was conquered by the
Oyo Empire, and Dahomey had to pay tribute. Taxes on slaves were mostly paid in
cowrie shells. During the 19th century, palm oil was the main trading commodity. France conquered Dahomey during the
Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–1894) and established a colonial government there. Most of the troops who fought against Dahomey were native Africans.
Yoruba Traditionally, the
Yoruba people viewed themselves as the inhabitants of a united empire, in contrast to the situation today, in which "Yoruba" is the cultural-linguistic designation for speakers of a language in the
Niger–Congo family. The first Yoruba state was Ile-Ife which would later become the capital of the
Ife Empire, said to have flourished in 1000 CE around a now deified figure, the first
oni Oduduwa. Oduduwa's sons would be the founders of the different city-states of the Yoruba, and his daughters would become the mothers of the various Yoruba
obas, or kings. Yoruba city-states were usually governed by an
oba and an
iwarefa, a council of chiefs who advised the
oba. By the 18th century, the Yoruba city-states formed a loose confederation, with the
oni of Ifẹ̀ as the head and Ifẹ̀ as the capital. As time went on, the individual city-states became more powerful, with their
obas assuming more powerful spiritual positions and diluting the authority of the
oni of Ifẹ̀. Rivalry became intense among the city-states. The Oyo state was conquered in 1550 by the kingdom of
Nupe, which was in possession of cavalry, an important tactical advantage. As a result,
Alafin Orompoto (), king of Oyo, was sent into exile. After returning, he built up an army based on heavily armed cavalry and long-service troops. This made them nearly invincible in combat on the northern grasslands and in the thinly wooded forests. By the end of the 16th century, Oyo had added to their domain the western region of the Niger, the hills of
Togo, the Yoruba of
Ketu, the
Dahomey, and the
Fon nation. A governing council served the empire, with clear executive divisions. Each acquired region was assigned a local administrator. Families served in king-making capacities. Oyo, as a northern Yoruba kingdom, served as a middle-man in the
north–south trade and connected the eastern forest of
Guinea with the western and central
Sudan, the Sahara, and North Africa. The Yoruba manufactured cloth, ironware, and pottery, which were exchanged for salt, leather, and, most importantly, horses from the Sudan to maintain the cavalry. Oyo remained strong for two hundred years. It became a protectorate of
Great Britain in 1888, before further fragmenting into warring factions. The Oyo state ceased to exist as any sort of power in 1896. Other Yoruba states included the
Ijebu kingdom. Benin The
Benin Empire was ruled by the
Kwa-speaking
Edo people, and by the mid-15th century it was engaged in political expansion and consolidation in the region. Under
Oba (king)
Ewuare (), the state was organised for conquest. He solidified central authority and initiated 30 years of war with his neighbours. At the time of his death, the Benin Empire extended to
Dahomey in the West, to the
Niger Delta in the East, along the West African coast, and to the
Yoruba towns in the north. The
oba ruled with advice from the
uzama, a council consisting of chiefs of powerful families and town chiefs of different guilds. Later its authority was diminished by the establishment of administrative dignitaries. In particular, Ewuare's grandson
Oba Esigie (1504–1550) eroded the power of the
uzama and increased contact and trade with Europeans, especially with the Portuguese who provided a new source of copper for court art. After the 16th century, Benin mainly exported pepper, ivory, gum, and cotton cloth to the Portuguese and Dutch, who resold it to other African societies along the coast. Women wielded political power in the empire. For example, the queen-mother who produced a future
oba wielded immense political influence. Benin was never a significant exporter of slaves, as Alan Ryder's book
Benin and the Europeans showed. By the early 1700s, the empire was wrecked with dynastic disputes and
civil wars. It regained much of its former power in the reigns of
Oba Eresoyen and
Oba Akengbuda. In 1897,
the British sacked Benin City.
Sungbo's Eredo and the
walls of Benin were built amid 1st millennium CE, prior to 10th century CE.
Niger Delta and Igbo The
Niger Delta comprised numerous city-states with numerous forms of government, comparable to those of the
Swahili people in
East Africa. These city-states were protected by the waterways and thick vegetation of the delta. Some, like
Bonny,
Kalabari, and
Warri, had kings. Others, like
Brass, were
republics with small senates, and those at
Cross River and
Old Calabar were ruled by merchants of the
ekpe society. The
ekpe society regulated trade and made rules for members known as house systems. Some of these houses, like the Pepples of Bonny, were well known in the Americas and Europe. The region was transformed by trade in the 17th century CE. The
Igbo primarily lived east of the delta, with the exception of the
Anioma on the west side of the delta. The Igbo
Kingdom of Nri rose in the 10th century CE, with
Eze Nri denoting its leader. It was a political entity composed of villages, where each village was autonomous, independent with its own territory and name, and recognised by its neighbours. Villages were democratic, with all males and sometimes females a part of the decision-making process. Graves at
Igbo-Ukwu (800 CE) contained brass artefacts of local manufacture and glass beads from
Egypt or
India, indicative of extraregional trade. The
Aro Confederacy was a political union orchestrated by the
Igbo subgroup, the
Aro people, centered in the
Arochukwu Kingdom in present-day south-eastern
Nigeria. It was founded at the end of the 16th century, and by the 18th and 19th centuries their influence and presence reached across eastern Nigeria into parts of the Niger Delta and southern
Igala.
Later migrations Through pathways taken by
caravan, or via travel amid the
Almovarid period, a West African population (e.g.,
Sub-Saharan West Africans) may have introduced the −29 (
A →
G)
β-thalassemia mutationfound in notable amounts among
African-Americansinto the
North African region of
Morocco. The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g.,
saurian) and human artforms. By 1650, the slave trade was in full force at a number of sites along the coast of West Africa, and over the coming centuries would result in severely reduced growth for the region's population and economy. The expanding slave trade produced significant populations of West Africans living in the
New World, recently colonised by Europeans. The oldest known remains of African slaves in the Americas were found in
Mexico in early 2006 and are thought to date from the late-16th to mid-17th centuries. As the demand for slaves increased, some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours, resulting in fresh captives. States such as
Dahomey (in modern-day
Benin) and the
Bambara Empire (in modern-day
Mali) based much of their economy on the exchange of slaves for European goods, particularly
firearms that they then employed to capture more slaves. During the colonial era, the Dutch colonial authorities in West Africa were active in
recruiting African slaves into the
Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (known as
Belanda Hitam), as it was believed that Black Africans were more
immune than Europeans to the tropical diseases present in the
Dutch East Indies. Recruitment changed format after the
Atlantic slave trade was abolished by European and American governments in the 19th century. For instance, 1831 was the first year when only
volunteers were accepted for the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army.
Slavery in the Americas persisted in some capacity after the end of the Atlantic slave trade, until
Brazil abolished it in 1888. Today, descendants of West Africans make up large and important segments of the population in Brazil, the
Caribbean, the
United States, and throughout the
New World. A modern genetic research study of
African-Americans in several major US cities concluded that their common ancestry originated most prominently in western Africa, consistent with prior genetic studies and the history of the slave trade.
Colonial period In 1725, the cattle-herding
Fulanis of
Fouta Djallon launched the first major reformist
jihad of the region, overthrowing the local
animist,
Mandé-speaking elites and attempting to somewhat democratise their society. A similar movement occurred on a much broader scale in the
Hausa city-states of Nigeria under
Uthman dan Fodio. An
imam influenced by the teachings of
Sidi Ahmed al-Tidjani, Uthman preached against the elitist Islam of the then-dominant
Qadiriyyah brotherhood, winning a broad base of support amongst the common people. Uthman's
Fulani Empire was soon one of the region's largest states, and inspired the later
jihads of
Massina Empire founder
Seku Amadu in present-day
Mali, and the cross-Sudan
Toucouleur conqueror
El Hadj Umar Tall. At the same time, the Europeans started to travel into the interior of Africa to trade and explore. Scottish explorer
Mungo Park (1771–1806) made the first serious expedition into the region's interior, tracing the Niger River as far as
Timbuktu. French armies followed not long after. In 1774 it was noted that the extensive coastline and deep rivers of Africa had not been utilised for "correspondence or commerce", even though maps in the same volume clearly show the "Gum Coast", "Grain Coast", "Ivory Coast", and "Gold Coast".
Malachy Postlethwayt writes in this book,
Scramble for Africa In the
Scramble for Africa in the 1880s, Europeans started to colonise the inland of West Africa, as they had previously mostly controlled trading ports along the coasts and rivers.
Samory Ture's newly founded
Wassoulou Empire was the last to fall, and with his capture in 1898, military resistance to French colonial rule effectively ended. France dominated West Africa, followed by Britain. Small colonial operations were held by Germany (until 1914), and also by Spain and Portugal. Only
Liberia was independent before 1958. After the slave trade died out, Denmark and the Netherlands sold off their small holdings. Britain operated from four small colonies on the West African coast:
Sierra Leone, the
Gold Coast,
Lagos and the
Niger. British trade in tropical products reached £4 million per year, and was entirely handled by a small number of resident merchants. There were no permanent British settlers or military bases. The posts were held entirely for trade purposes, and also as calling stations.
London had no long-term plans to join them together or go inland. British diplomats negotiated military agreements with local tribes, who needed British protection from the expansionist
Ashanti tribes. Britain fought repeated
Anglo-Ashanti wars in the Gold Coast in 1823, 1824–1831, 1863–64, 1873–74, 1895–96 and 1900. Only the last two were clear British victories. French pretensions in West Africa were much more ambitious, and involved not just trade, but rebuilding the
French Empire and bringing new populations into the umbrella of French civilization and
Catholicism. There were dreams of consolidating a vast African empire by expanding south from the
Mediterranean into the
Sahara desert, moving east toward the
Nile River, and moving south toward
King Leopold's Congo.
Post-colonial period Following
World War II, campaigns for independence sprang up across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under the
Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972).
Ghana became the first country of Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve independence in 1957, followed by Guinea under the guidance of
Sekou Touré the next year. After a decade of protests, riots, and clashes,
French West Africa voted for autonomy in a
1958 referendum, dividing into the states of today. Most of the British colonies gained autonomy the following decade. Out of the 17 nations that achieved their independence in 1960, the
Year of Africa, nine were West African countries. In 1973,
Guinea-Bissau proclaimed its independence from Portugal, and was internationally recognised following the 1974
Carnation Revolution in Portugal. West African political history since independence has been characterised by
African socialism. Senghor, Nkrumah, and Touré all embraced the idea of African socialism, whereas Houphouët-Boigny and
Liberia's
William Tubman remained suspicious of it. 1983 saw the rise of socialist
Thomas Sankara, often titled the "
Che Guevara of Africa", to power in
Burkina Faso. Since independence, West Africa has suffered from the same problems as much of the African continent, particularly dictatorships, political corruption, and
military coups. At the time of his death in 2005, for example,
Togo's
Étienne Eyadéma was among the world's longest-ruling dictators. International conflicts have been few, with
Mali and Burkina Faso's nearly bloodless
Agacher Strip War a rare exception.
Civil wars The region of West Africa has seen a number of
civil wars in its recent past, including the
Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970), two civil wars in
Liberia (
1989–1997 and
1999–2003),
a decade of fighting in
Sierra Leone (1991–2002), the
Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–1999), and two recent conflicts in
Côte d'Ivoire (
2002–2007 and
2010–2011).
Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970) After gaining full independence from the
British Empire in 1963, Nigeria established the
First Republic, which was heavily influenced by British democracy and relied on majority rule. In less than three years, though, the Republic fell after a
successful coup d'état led by southern Nigerian rebels on 15 January 1966. The fall of the First Republic increased political, economic, ethnic, cultural, and religious tensions between North and South Nigeria which had been present since colonial times. This led to the military governor of south-eastern Nigeria, Colonel
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu-Ojukwu, seceding south-eastern Nigeria, citing northern massacres and electoral fraud. The independent state became known as the
Republic of Biafra. Northern Nigeria opposed the claim of southern secession, and the Nigerian government called for police action in the area. The armed forces of Nigeria were sent in to occupy and take back the Republic of Biafra. Nigerian forces successfully seized Biafra through the Capture of
Nsukka, the Capture of
Ogoja, Capture of
Abakaliki, and the Capture of
Enugu. Their military successes were largely due to the advantaged army of Nigeria. By 1970, Biafraian General Chukwuemeka Odumegwu fled to the neighboring nation of
Côte d'Ivoire, and Biafra surrendered due to lack of resources and leadership. The secessionist state officially reunited with the northern Nigeria on 15 January 1970. The conflict is estimated to have killed roughly 1 million people.
First Liberian Civil War (1989–1997) The First Liberian Civil War was an internal conflict in
Liberia from 1989 until 1997. The conflict killed about 250,000 people and eventually led to the involvement of the
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the
United Nations. The peace did not last long, and in 1999 the
Second Liberian Civil War broke out. In 1980,
Samuel Doe led a
coup that overthrew the elected government. In 1985, he
held elections that were widely considered fraudulent, leading to
an unsuccessful coup attempt by General
Thomas Quiwonkpa. In December 1989, former government minister
Charles Taylor moved into the country from the neighboring
Ivory Coast to start an uprising meant to topple the Doe government. The
National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), led by Taylor, soon splintered and devolved into battle with
Prince Johnson's rebel group, the
Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia (INPFL) for control in the capital,
Monrovia. In 1990, Johnson seized control of the capital and executed Doe brutally.
Second Liberian Civil War (1999–2003) The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 when a rebel group backed by the government of neighbouring
Guinea, the
Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), emerged in northern Liberia. In early 2003, a second rebel group, the
Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), emerged in the south, and by June–July 2003,
Charles Taylor's government controlled only a third of the country. The capital
Monrovia was besieged by LURD, and the group's shelling of the city resulted in the deaths of many civilians. Thousands of people were displaced from their homes as a result of the conflict. The
Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed by the warring parties on August 18, 2003, marking the political end of the conflict and the beginning of the country's transition to democracy under the
National Transitional Government of Liberia, led by interim President
Gyude Bryant until the
Liberian general election of 2005.
Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) The civil war in
Sierra Leone began on 23 March 1991 as a result of an attempted overthrow against the administration of president,
Joseph Saidu Momoh. The rebels went under the guise of the
Revolutionary United Front (RUF) led by
Foday Sankoh a previous army corporal. The Sierra Leoneian government called for action and soon the
Sierra Leone Army (SLA) was sent in to control the situation and take back RUF occupied territory. By 1992 president Joseph Momoh was ousted by a successful military coup led by Captain
Valentine Strasser. Capitan Strasser, soon established multi-party democratic elections in the region. On 18 January 2002, the civil war was officially ended by former president Kabbah. During the 11 year conflict, roughly 50,000 Sierra Leoneians were killed with 2,000,000 displaced.
Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–1999) Before the civil war began, an attempted coup d'état took place led by military
Brigadier General Ansumane Mané. Mané leading the coup, blamed the presidency of
Joao Bernardo Vieira for the poverty and corruption of
Guinea Bissau. President Vieira, controlling the armed forces, soon fired Mané from his position of
Brigadier General. He was fired on charges of supplying Senegal rebels. On 7 June 1998, a second coup d'état began. The coup once again failed. Soon after, rebels received aid from the neighboring nations of Senegal and Guinea-Conakry. The conflict sparked a civil war. Many soldiers in the armed forces of
Guinea-Bissau joined the side of the rebels. This was in part, due to the government not paying its soldiers. The rebels continued to fight from 1998 to 1999. President Vieira was ousted on 7 May 1999. By 10 May 1999, the war ended when President Vieira signed an unconditional surrender in a Portuguese embassy. Approximately 655 were killed as a result of the conflict.
First Ivorian Civil War (2002–2007) In the early 2000s, the
Ivory Coast (also known as Côte d'Ivoire) experienced an economic rescission. The rescission began as a result of the previous economic boom crashing the economy as a whole. This led to the predominantly Muslim north and predominantly Christian south of the Ivory Coast becoming politically divided. The southern Ivory Coast was in control of the Ivorian government. The north was under the control of the rebel movement. The civil war between the two began officially on 19 September 2002 when rebels launched a series of attacks on the south. The city of
Abidjan was primarily targeted. Northern rebels were successful in the attacks. As a result of the chaos, president
Robert Guéï was killed in the rebellions. The south retailed with military action. France supported the south and sent 2500 soldiers to the region and called for
United Nations action. French action in the area went under the guise and codename of
Opération Licorne. By 2004 most fighting in the region ceased. On 4 March 2007 the civil war official ended with the signing of a peace treaty.
Second Ivorian Civil War (2010–2011) ==Historiographic and conceptual problems==