Descent of Inanna into the Underworld

The myth of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld is presented in two versions: one written in Sumerian and another rewritten in Akkadian, where the goddess is referred to as Ishtar. These two versions are not faithful translations of each other; instead, they represent two distinct renditions. The Akkadian version of the myth, comprising 138 lines and entitled The Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld, was the initial version to be unearthed. Among the numerous clay tablet fragments unearthed in Nineveh and Assur during the 1860s, two comprehensive texts dating from the early first millennium BCE particularly stand out. However, their provenance appears to originate from as early as 1600 BCE. Except for a few minor displacements and stylistic divergences, the two texts are strikingly similar and can be used to reconstruct the plot. The translation of these fragments was among the first Akkadian literary works to be published in a modern language. tablet at the University museum in Philadelphia. The Sumerian version, entitled Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, comprises 400 lines and is the modern designation for the myth. The incipit, which designates the Sumerian text, bestows upon it the title Angalta, which translates to "From the Great Sky." This version, discovered after the Akkadian version, is of a more archaic provenance. It was composed circa 1700 BCE, although the precise date of its origin remains uncertain. In the early 20th century, epigraphists painstakingly pieced together the text from numerous tablet fragments unearthed in Nippur. Arno Poebel and Stephen Langdon initiated the initial reconstruction efforts with small text fragments and the upper half of a four-column tablet preserved in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. However, due to the absence of numerous elements, it was not feasible to establish a logical reconstruction of the narrative. Consequently, archaeologist Edward Chiera identified the second portion of the Istanbul tablet at the University museum in Philadelphia, and a preliminary complete translation was published in 1936. But for historian Samuel Noah Kramer the narrative remained incomplete. A considerable number of passages in the Akkadian version appeared to be too allusive to be linked to the Sumerian version. Furthermore, some fragments were challenging to situate within the appropriate sequence. Consequently, Kramer proceeded to collate the disparate fragments in his possession, which were located between Istanbul and Philadelphia. The discovery in 1942 and the initial translations of Descent of Ishtar, Inanna did not descend to the Underworld to search for Dumuzi. Instead, her purpose was to extend her power. Accordingly, her descent precedes that of her husband. In addition to the association with the Orpheus myth, this misunderstanding can also be attributed to the intricate complexity of the Akkadian version's conclusion. The final twelve lines, which pertain to Dumuzi, continue to present interpretive challenges in the present era (2021). Consequently, the Sumerian version of the myth, of which only approximately twenty lines were absent by 1951, was ultimately nearly fully comprehended and published in the 1950s. continued to produce a more complete English version in 1974 by William R. Sladek and a French one in 1980 by Jean Bottéro. In 1996 Bendt Alster conducted a reexamination of a passage from the conclusion of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, which led him to the unexpected conclusion that Inanna herself intercedes on behalf of Dumuzi, whom she had previously sent to the Underworld in a cruel act, to secure his seasonal return to life. New French and English translations were produced by Pascal Attinger in 2016 (with subsequent revisions in 2021) and by Bénédicte Cuperly in 2021, who also provided new insights into the narrative. == Characters ==

Inanna/Ishtar Inanna (also known as Ishtar in Akkadian) is a prominent deity in the Mesopotamian pantheon, identified as the "Lady of Heaven" in Sumerian texts. Inanna is the daughter of Sîn (Nanna in Sumerian), the moon god, and his wife Nikkal. Her siblings include the sun god Shamash (Utu in Sumerian) and Ereshkigal, her older sister. Inanna is a goddess with a multifaceted nature. She is the goddess of love, fertility, war, grain, and prosperity. She is also associated with prostitution and other taboo practices such as sex change, deformity, and disguises. Her domain is so vast that she seems to embody the characteristics of several goddesses that appeared and disappeared throughout Mesopotamian history. Additionally, she is the goddess who elevates kings and unites with them in a sacred marriage to ensure their prosperity. Additionally, Inanna is a goddess who has no husband but is associated with numerous lovers. These lovers, in contact with her, transform and subsequently perish. This is corroborated by the passage from the Epic of Gilgamesh where Gilgamesh refuses to be seduced by Ishtar (referred to as "princess" in the narrative). He safeguards himself against her affections and censures her for having caused only misery to her lovers, whose list he then enumerates, commencing with Tammuz. In his analysis of Inanna/Ishtar in Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, Jean Bottéro posits that the goddess is depicted not as a deity associated with fertility or abundance, but rather as a lover and guardian of free love. She is portrayed as a figure whose passionate attachment knows no bounds. This is exemplified by the Akkadian version of the episode in which the goddess's demise results in the termination of all physical love and coupling activities. Although coupling is a prerequisite for fertility and reproduction, Ishtar's function does not fall within the scope of this fertility framework. Instead, her role is confined to the realms of physical attraction, sexuality, and desire. British Museum, London. In contrast to her younger sister Inanna, Ereshkigal is depicted as a more static figure, known as the "Queen of the Underworld" Inanna's sister, Ereshkigal, represents death, yet in contrast to her, she gives birth to children: young people who die prematurely on Earth, which causes the anguish she experiences in Descent of Inanna into the Underworld. She rules from a "lapis-lazuli palace", with the assistance of her vizier Namtar and the scribe of the Underworld, Geshtinanna, Dumuzi's sister and wife of Ningishzida. She is also accompanied by the seven Anunnakil, the judges of the Underworld, who, in Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, condemn Inanna to find a substitute to replace her in the Underworld. The name Gugalanna may also be interpreted as the "Bull of Heaven." Inanna requests entry into the Underworld on the pretext of sharing the mourning of Gugalanna with her sister. Namtar In the Akkadian version Ereshkigal is assisted by her vizier, Namtar. He is regarded as the deity responsible for diseases and epidemics. It is he who is charged with unleashing the "Sixty Diseases" upon Ishtar, resulting in her inevitable demise. Nevertheless, he is also credited with pouring the water from the "Waterskin" to resurrect Ishtar. Some hypothesize that he is also a progeny of Ereshkigal, the firstborn child of the goddess following her premature demise on Earth. He is the patron of the arts and techniques and may be considered the civilizing god and organizer of the world. He is the sovereign of the "Me" principle, which he maintains within his city of Eridu. In the myth of Inanna and Enki, Inanna appropriates a portion of these from him. Additionally, he is the creator and guardian of humanity. He forewarns them of the impending Flood and enables them to safeguard themselves without betraying the assembly of gods. He guides humans through the apkallu and Adapa. He is ingenious and intelligent and thus becomes indispensable to the other gods by solving the most challenging problems. For example, in the Epic of Creation, he saves the young gods from the wrath of the Apsû by resurrecting the dead Inanna in the Underworld. Similarly, in the myth of Nergal and Ereshkigal, he helps Nergal repair the affront he committed against Ereshkigal. These actions demonstrate Enki's role as a protector of humans, whereas traditional narratives portray the other deities as the originators of human suffering. Dumuzi Dumuzi (or Tammuz in Babylonian) is a deity associated with abundance in Sumerian mythology. He is thought to have emerged from a process of syncretism, likely occurring in prehistoric times, which involved the combination of several Sumerian deities related to vegetation or livestock. region (Iraq). Dumuzi represents the cyclical nature of the seasons through his death and subsequent rebirth. His union with Inanna appears to originate from a ritual associated with the harvesting of dates, wherein the goddess, who protects granaries and silos, attracts and welcomes Dumuzi, a date palm producer. This union, therefore, generates prosperity and abundance for the community. linking his character to the agricultural calendar or livestock activities. Additionally, he is referred to as "Dumuzi the shepherd", as the fifth legendary monarch preceding the Flood. From the Third Dynasty of Ur, kings who already engage in ritual union with Inanna appear to fully identify with "Dumuzi the shepherd" as shepherds of the people. It can thus be postulated that the "great Apple Tree of the lowland of Kulaba", as referenced in the Descent of Inanna to the Underworld, may be the throne of Uruk upon which a king named "Dumuzi the fisherman" sits. This would make him the fourth king of the first dynasty of Uruk-Kulaba, a period that commenced long after the legendary flood. and the scribe of the Underworld, == Mythological narratives ==

From the 3rd millennium BCE to the 1st millennium BCE, the Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, probably authored by Inanna's clergy, was read and recited in Sumerian and Akkadian in the most prominent cities of Mesopotamia, representing a significant aspect of Sumerian–Akkadian culture. Sumerian version Inanna, a goddess, and queen of Heaven, decides to descend to the Underworld, the "Land of No Return", where her sister and sworn enemy Ereshkigal resides. The text does not explicitly state her motivation, but the reactions of the gods Enlil and Nanna (a few lines later) suggest that it may have been a spontaneous decision, potentially driven by the intention to extend her influence to her sister's domain. Regardless of her true motivation, she proceeds to traverse the seven sanctuaries under her control and equips herself with the seven "Me", of which she is the custodian. , Oriental Institute of Chicago. Before her departure, Inanna issues a cautionary directive to her assistant, Ninshubur.As she proceeds toward the portal of the Underworld, the goddess provides her with directives. Ninshubur is first charged with the duty of performing lamentation rites for Inanna. If the goddess does not return after three days and three nights, the assistant is to alert the other gods. She must first approach Enlil, then, if he offers no assistance, Nanna, and finally, as a last resort, Enki. During this journey, Ninshubur is instructed to impress the gods with her mourning and sinister demeanor due to Inanna's absence. on a peg. cylinder seal and its modern impression depicting the god Ea in his current form, with the horned tiara symbolizing the divinity and the waters gushing above his shoulders indicating his function as god of underground fresh waters, alongside his vizier Ushmu (right) and the deities Ishtar and Shamash (left). British Museum, London. In the absence of her return, Ninshubur proceeded to seek the assistance of Enlil in Nippur and Nanna in Ur. However, they decline to assist Inanna, as the two deities hypothesize that the goddess has inadvertently caused her predicament. Following the plan, Ninshubur proceeded to Eridu to seek the assistance of Enki. He is more capable of understanding the implications of Inanna's death and devising a strategy to appease Ereshkigal and thus agrees to assist his sister. He then creates two asexual beings, the "kurgara", to whom he entrusts the "food of life", and the "galatura", to whom he entrusts the "drink of life", using the dirt under his fingernails. He sends them to the Underworld and issues instructions regarding their interactions with Ereshkigal, advising them to sympathize with the pains she is undergoing due to her children. In response to such solicitous behavior, Ereshkigal consents to provide sustenance and refreshment to her newly arrived guests. The two beings decline the offer and instead request the corpse of Inanna. "We would prefer, they said, that you offer us the corpse hanging on the peg!" Then, they pour the "food of life" and the "drink of life" given by Enki on the goddess's body, thus revivifying her. However, before returning to Earth, Inanna is stopped by the judges of the Underworld, who stipulate that if she wishes to return to Earth and remain there, she must locate a living being to assume her role in the Underworld. However, an alternative translation suggests that the goddess's actions are not driven by anger and instead requests that the demons take "something" from Dumuzi (presumably his earthly life). impression that could represent Dumuzi during his stay in the Underworld. Emerging from a net, he is surrounded by two snakes and Gallu demons. British Museum, London. Faced with this affliction, Dumuzi laments and petitions Utu, Inanna's sibling, who transforms him into a serpent. In this instance, the absence of a section in the manuscript necessitates that researchers draw upon other textual sources for insight. Consequently, Dumuzi evades capture and takes refuge with his sister, Geshtinanna. However, Dumuzi is subsequently apprehended by the demons after being informed by a fly. He is then taken to the "Kur", which signifies both "mountains" and "the Underworld." It is similarly conceivable that Geshtinanna requests that Inanna assume her brother's role for half of the year in the Underworld. Inanna agrees to intercede with Ereshkigal to alleviate Dumuzi's suffering, responding to the tears of his sister. Akkadian version While the narrative remains largely consistent with the Sumerian version, with the names of the deities undergoing alterations – Inanna becomes Ishtar, Nanna becomes Sin, Enki becomes Ea, Dumuzi becomes Tammuz, and Geshtinanna becomes Belilli – the text is considerably more concise, with numerous passages being omitted, including those about the goddess's grooming rituals and her discourse with Nishubur. The section devoted to Dumuzi is notably brief, and there is no indication that any other member of Ishtar's entourage might have been considered as a potential substitute. However, the Sumerian version incorporates additional details, particularly emphasizing the distress caused by Ishtar's demise in the realm of the living. Ereshkigal hypothesizes about Ishtar's intentions, summons Namtar, the arbiter of the Underworld, and issues directives to the various soldiers of the Underworld. Furthermore, Ereshkigal administers a distinct form of punishment to Ishtar, diverging from the Sumerian account. In this version, Ereshkigal instructs her servant Namtar to "unleash" the "sixty diseases" upon Ishtar. This suggests that the text is not a mere translation of the Sumerian work, but a creative reinterpretation. Without any transition, Tammuz's sister—identified in Akkadian texts as Geshtinanna or "Belili"—expresses profound distress at the prospect of being separated from her brother. Ereshkigal adds that he will ascend to Earth accompanied by mourners. == Reconstruction ==

Historian Dina Katz divides the myth into two parts, each of which can be considered an independent narrative. In the initial section of the narrative, Inanna provides directives to her aide, Ninshubur, before entering the netherworld. There, she encounters her sister and is saved from death by Enki, subsequently returning to the land of the living. The researcher emphasizes that, in light of the goddess's instructions to her assistant, Inanna's actions were not those of a careless and prideful individual. Instead, she meticulously planned her journey, orchestrated her demise, and deliberately provoked Enki's intervention to resurrect her. Regardless of her motives, Inanna's endeavor proved to be a resounding success. Moreover, for Bendt Alster, this episode is closely aligned with the myth of Inanna et Enki, in which Inanna enters the city of Uruk to steal the Me that is held by Enki. The second part of the narrative commences immediately following the curse pronounced by Inanna against Dumuzi. It represents a condensed version of the Dream of Dumuzi myth, wherein the listener bears witness to Dumuzi's prolonged agony preceding his departure for the Underworld. The original sections of the Descent of Inanna into the Underworld narrative appear to encompass two distinct yet interrelated themes: Dumuzi's return and his replacement by Geshtinanna, and Inanna's condemnation to provide a substitute to occupy her role in the Underworld, accompanied by the search for this substitute. For Dina Katz, Inanna's condemnation represents an intermediate episode that bridges the two independent narratives that comprise the narrative. Researcher Noga Ayali-Darshan examines the multiple occurrences of the phrase Inanna ascends from the Underworld between lines 282 and 306 of the myth. These five occurrences serve as a splice between the two independent parts composing the narrative and seem to reflect specific editorial strategies (linked expansion and resumptive repetition) used to integrate new additions to the original narrative. These repetitions are techniques that reinforce the narrative structure of the transitional passage. Therefore, it is crucial to understand these repetitions not as anomalies, but as integral elements in the textual and literary evolution of the Descent of Inanna to the Underworld myth. A guilty goddess This division prompts historian Dina Katz to posit that the Descent of Inanna into the Underworld represents a rearrangement of the myths that constitute this narrative. This rearrangement, whether intentional or not, has the effect of making Inanna responsible for her husband Dumuzi's death. Her conclusion is based on the complete absence of Inanna from the Dream Dumuzi myth. A myth in which the central character is Dumuzi, in the form of a god/shepherd whose nature is reduced to being taken by demons and dying after a premonitory dream. Additionally, she points out the existence of several lamentations by Inanna where the goddess mourns her husband Dumuzi's death and sometimes even seeks to avenge him, as is evident in Inanna and Bilulu. He attributes this shift in the mythological account to what he terms a "socialization" of the myth. The naturalistic fertility myth is superseded by a new family concept. Inanna, the goddess associated with physical attraction, mating rituals, and desire, is depicted as a frivolous and capricious lover. She is also portrayed as the "left-hand wife", who, through an impulsive and prideful act, becomes responsible for her husband's disappearance. In the Descent of Inanna into the Underworld narrative, she is compared to another female personality, Geshtinanna. The latter personifies robust and courageous fraternal love, a love for which even life can be sacrificed. This contrasts with Inanna's inconstant desire, which ultimately results in the demise of her lover. The development of a funeral rite Bénédicte Cuperly, building upon the division proposed by Dina Katz (see above), examines the latter portion as encompassing the establishment of funeral rites. Dumuzi does not attempt to evade his demise; rather, he dies immediately following Inanna's identification of him to the demons as a replacement for her in the Underworld. Inanna gazes at him with the same "death stare" that she received from Ereshkigal. A reexamination of the texts suggests that Inanna does not deliver Dumuzi in his entirety, but rather a portion of him. It can be reasonably deduced that Dumuzi's "thing" is likely to be his earthly life. Subsequently, Inanna and her brother Utu chase away the demons, thereby ensuring the accomplishment of the funeral rites. Subsequently, Dumuzi's transformations, his escapes, and the prayers he addresses to Utu are rituals that facilitate the elaboration of his "Gedim" and prevent the complete erasure of the deceased. In this way, the goddess allows Dumuzi the opportunity to reside in another form within the realm of the dead, thereby preparing him for the potential of returning to the land of the living. It is important to note that Innana does not slay Dumuzi out of anger; rather, her husband is the sole individual capable of collaborating with her to facilitate her escape from the Underworld. By allowing him to return annually in the spring, Inanna not only asserts her role as the mistress of death but also of life. To express gratitude for his self-sacrifice for her return to the land of the living, she takes him for six months each year into the heavens, where she resides. For the researcher, these elements provide corroboration for the hypothesis that the Descent of Inanna is a narrative composed by the goddess's clergy. == Themes developed ==

The myth of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, reconstructed from several independent myths, offers insight into the Mesopotamians' understanding of the infernal world and the cyclical nature of the seasons. Cycle of seasons In his analysis of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, historian Thorkild Jacobsen identifies parallels between the ancient myth and the cyclical patterns observed in the natural world. He suggests that the narrative functions as an allegory of the seasonal cycle, where the return of life is contingent upon the death of another. Following Dumuzi's demise, which permits Inanna's continued existence, the character of Geshtinanna accepts her death to facilitate her brother's rebirth. In other instances, the latter is depicted as a barley grain used to make beer, while his sister is shown as a grape from which wine is made. The two deities each represent an intoxicating beverage, produced and stored alternately during the periods of the year when their respective gods are in the Underworld. In the initial section of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, the narrative commences during the period when the grain reserves are no longer replenished by the harvest and are gradually consumed without being replenished—resembling the gradual depletion of the goddess as she traverses the seven gates—until only the remnants of dried meat remain on the hooks before the advent of new harvests and the return of the waters of the Apsû, the domain of the god Enki. This aspect is thought to originate from the myth of Dumuzi or even from ancient beliefs or traditions linked to the early ages of Uruk, reflecting a transformed view at the time of its writing. Nudity of Inanna and the dead –2nd centuries BC. Musée du Louvre, Paris. In the works of Jean Bottero and Samuel Noah Kramer, Inanna is depicted as being divested of her garments, which symbolizes the loss of her identity. Her powers are diminished; she is "subdued." She is so thoroughly stripped of all her powers that Ereshkigal has no difficulty in unleashing the "Sixty diseases" upon her, condemning her to "remain dead" and hanging her corpse on a hook. Thus, the dead arriving in the underworld are deprived of all vitality and placed on the same level as all other dead. For example, Ishtar is frequently represented naked with a cape or jewelry, which suggests that she is progressively prepared to reside in the realm of the dead. In her analysis historian Dina Katz identifies several indications that the deceased were not conveyed to the Underworld in a state of undress or disrobing. King Ur-Nammu arrives in the realm of the dead in a chariot, bearing sumptuous gifts for the gods. In many royal tombs of Ur, it is difficult to discern whether the bodies are clothed or not. However, the deceased are adorned with a series of objects representing social status or wealth. Inanna/Ishtar's nudity, according to the historian, represents an exception to the general rule. To strip Inanna, Ereshkigal must trap the goddess of love and invent a story of seven gates to make her remove all her "Me." These are more related to desire and sexuality than to the dead and affliction. Ereshkigal seeks to impose a more appropriate "Me" on Inanna. In the mythological accounts of Nergal et Ereshkigal, the god Nergal is depicted as venturing to the Underworld, where he is divested of his belongings but not of his garments. In light of this narrative, Inanna's nudity upon her arrival in the Underworld is significant due to the absence of her "Me." Another example can be found in the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which Enkidu, before entering the Underworld, is instructed by a friend to wear dirty clothes to avoid being identified as an intruder from the realm of the living. This suggests that the dead are not naked in the Underworld. Geography of the underworld Descent of Inanna into the Underworld offers a detailed account of the process of accessing the realm of the dead. In contrast, the Akkadian version of the myth provides a comprehensive description of this realm, which is referred to as "Irkalla", "the Great City", or "the Great Land." In accordance with the two works, one gains access to the realm of the dead, a domain of perpetual damnation, through the palace of Ganzer. This is achieved following a lengthy journey across an expansive steppe and numerous mountains via the "Path of No Return." Accordingly, the Underworld is furnished with a door and a lock. This is corroborated not only by the myth of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld but also by the accounts of Nergal and Ereshkigal, and to a lesser extent, Enlil and Ninlil. Beyond this portal, which Ishtar/Inanna or Nergal encounter, lie seven additional gates, leading to the core of the Underworld. Given the Underworld's reputation as a realm from which escape is challenging, these seven gates are occasionally conceptualized as being embedded within the walls encircling the Underworld. However, no textual evidence supports this hypothesis. In the narrative of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, the directives the gatekeeper receives from his mistress Ereshkigal suggest that the seven gates are situated within the palace of Ganzer. == Rites, prayers, and festivals ==

A review of accounting documents from multiple cities suggests the existence of a ritual named "Giranum" during the third dynasty of Ur. This ritual appears to have involved lamentations related to the descent of goddesses into the underworld and their return. While there are no immediate references to the myth of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld in these documents, the "Giranum" is celebrated in Ur at least in honor of Annunitum or Ulmashitum, a goddess associated with childbirth. This ritual also includes a banquet, which may be a festive meal celebrating the return of these goddesses from the underworld. The Akkadian version, Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld, concludes with what appear to be directives for the performance of mourning rituals in honor of Dumuzi. These are corroborated by evidence from the cities of Mari Furthermore, other documents indicate that mourning ceremonies for Dumuzi were still being held in the 2nd millennium BC in the kingdom of Mari. These include records of expenditure for oil "for the burial of Dumuzi" and "for Dumuzi, when he is resurrected." Additionally, several entries of Dumuzi in the sanctuary of Belet-ekallim are also mentioned. The Sumerian version of Inanna's Descent to the Underworld concludes with a prayer to Ereshkigal, wherein the speaker expresses their delight at the opportunity to honor the deity: "How sweet it is to celebrate you, August Ereshkigal!" The text lacks any indication of ritualistic activity. However, during the Old Babylonian period, the statue of Inanna appears to have made regular journeys from Uruk to Kutha, the seat of the infernal deities, traversing the seven cities of Inanna referenced in Descent of Inanna into the Underworld. Following the collapse of the Isin dynasty (18th century BC), Tammuz (the Akkadian iteration of "Dumuzi") appears to transition from a position as a deity of prosperity to a more subordinate role predominantly associated with the Underworld. From this perspective, the month of Tammuz is associated with the fourth month of the year (July), which corresponds to the beginning of the dry season and the celebration of his death. This celebration also provides an opportunity for an exorcism rite, in which wandering souls (etemmu) returning from the Underworld to haunt the living—along with diseases and afflictions—were entrusted to Tammuz so that he could guide them, as a benevolent shepherd, to the place from which they should not return. During the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609 BC), a ritual called "Allatu" was performed in Nineveh during the month of Nissan (March–April) as part of the New Year festivities. This ritual entails the removal of a statue of the goddess Ishtar by an individual assuming the role of the goddess Ereshkigal ("Allatu" in Assyrian). Concurrently, a ritual designated as Taklimtu entailed the exposure and lamentation of the corpse and personal effects of Tammuz. == Descent of Inanna through the centuries ==

Ishtar of Arbela and the Gnostics In the words of the esteemed researcher Simo Parpola, the myth of Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld serves as the inspiration for the initiatory rites of the priests of the Ishtar sanctuary in Arbela, Assyria. During these rites, the endless worship of the goddess facilitates the attainment of a mystical union with the god Assur. According to the historian, a similar phenomenon occurs in the Gnostic myth of the Fall of Sophia and the theme of purification present in The Exegesis of the Soul, another Gnostic text composed between 120 and 135 AD. Nevertheless, this interpretation is vigorously challenged within the historical community. For Jerrold Cooper, while certain patterns specific to the ancient Near East may persist in Hellenistic Greece, allowing for a similarity between Descent of Inanna into the Underworld and Gnostic myths, no written document or tangible evidence allows us to trace the origins of these texts back to Assyrian or Mesopotamian civilization. Lamentations for Tammuz Towards the end of the 1st millennium BC, Tammuz underwent a process of partial assimilation with Osiris, resulting in the emergence of Adon, which translates to "our lord" or "our master." Subsequently, his disappearance was commemorated annually in Cyprus, Jerusalem, Byblos, and subsequently in Rome and Greece (during a festival called "Deikrerion", a name derived from "Taklimtu") under the name of Adonis or even in Phrygia under the name of Attis. The theme of the disappearance and rebirth of vegetation alongside the descent and ascent of a divine figure is also found in several of these myths, particularly in the Greek myth of Persephone, daughter of Demeter. These numerous similarities between these myths and the Dumuzi cycle lead historians to conclude that Dumuzi is the prototype of the dying god. Evidence of Tammuz worship emerges at the outset of the 10th century AD. The deity is referenced in the introductory section of the Nabataean Agriculture text. The book, which was written or translated into Arabic by the Aramaic writer Ibn Wahshiyya, makes mention of lamentation rites addressed to Tammuz. These rites are conducted during the month of Tammuz, predominantly by Sabaean women in the vicinity of Baghdad and in the city of Harran. In addition to the association with the theme of death, the original significance of these rituals appears to have been entirely obfuscated. Tammuz is depicted as a poor man who is killed on multiple occasions in a gruesome manner and mourned for generations. It is similarly conceivable that, as a consequence of either forced or voluntary conversion of the Sabaeans to Christianity or of their coexistence with Christians in Harran, the lamentations for Tammuz underwent a gradual transformation into lamentations for the martyrdom of Saint George. Inanna’s descent and the Bible In the view of the religious historian Daniel Faivre, there are numerous parallels between the Sheol of the Hebrews and the Akkadian Irkalla, as evidenced, among other texts, in Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld. Both locations are depicted as desolate subterranean realms, characterized by a monochromatic palette and a pervasive dustiness, where the deceased are confined to a state of melancholy endurance. Moreover, the scarce remaining vestiges of ancient Hebrew religion also provide some indications of infernal deities. One such example is the couple Belial-Sheol, who possessed analogous prerogatives to the Sumerian-Akkadian couple Nergal-Ereshkigal. Subsequently, through syncretism, Nergal/Belial became a fallen angel, while Ereshkigal/Sheol became the very place of the Underworld. In verse 2:8 of the book of Nahum in the Old Testament, the word "stripped" (or "naked", in the Louis Segond translation) may allude to the stripping of the goddess in Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld. By correlating the verse of Nahum's prophecy with documents concerning the fall of Nineveh in 612 BC, the biblical scholar Aron Pinker offers an interpretation of the passage as a desperate appeal from the Ninevites to Ishtar. The Ninevites implore the goddess to intercede on their behalf and avert the impending attack by the Babylonians and the Medes. They petition her to descend from the Underworld with her husband Tammuz and save the inhabitants of the city from destruction. With regard to the reference to the doves, it appears to be a purely Babylonian formulation intended to convey the anguish and suffering experienced by Ishtar's "maidens." Nevertheless, it is not implausible to view the dove as a symbol of the goddess, although this is not formally attested in Babylon. Conversely, it is well attested in Palestine, where the dove represents Astarte. to other ritual laments that would have been conducted in the valley of Megiddo. Music and choreography In 1896, Vincent d'Indy composed a suite for orchestra titled Istar, op. 42. The composer draws inspiration from the goddess's journey through the seven gates of the Underworld, subjecting his musical theme to variations that, like the goddess's deprivation, range from the composed to the simple. The composer reveals the theme that inspired him in the creation of the work at the moment of the reunion of Ishtar and her beloved in the Underworld. In a letter dated September 15, 1896, d'Indy confided to his friend Ropartz: "I am skeptical that any audience will comprehend the unconventional structure of my composition. Nevertheless, I believe it will be engaging to listen to, despite the lack of contextualization. However, I found the process of composing it immensely enjoyable." Psychoanalysis and therapies Psychoanalysts, such as mythologists, anthropologists, and philosophers, recognize myths as expressions of psychic realities and psychological processes that have persisted over centuries. They are interested in the narratives of antiquity and seek to decode the insights of the ancients regarding the psychic realities that have shaped human behaviors and attitudes, both in the past and in the present. In the case of Sigmund Freud, for instance, the myth of Oedipus serves as the foundational myth for his entire psychological theory. In 1949 the American mythologist and lecturer Joseph Campbell elucidated the plot of the myth of Descent of Inanna into the Underworld as an allegorical representation of the necessity to disarm the Ego of its social defenses and adornments—the seven adornments of Inanna—that encumber it before confronting the Shadow. The "external help" (the galatura and the kurgara) is a natural consequence of the Ego's stripping of its defenses. In 1953 psychoanalyst Mary Esther Harding interpreted Descent of Ishtar into the Underworld as an expression of the transpersonal aspect of love and sexual desire. During Ishtar's sojourn in the Underworld, there is no manifestation of Eros or fertility on Earth. However, upon her return, men (and animals and plants) begin to exhibit behaviors indicative of love and reproduction. In other words, the feeling of love, the attraction between men and women, and the relationship between the sexes cannot be explained solely in terms of reproductive instinct. This myth illuminates the enigmatic and celestial essence of love. "The powers of love and fertility were the effects of a living spirit that Ishtar carried with her. She was imbued with this spirit and bestowed it freely whenever love was awakened within her. If the "Underworld" is conceptualized as the unconscious, it becomes evident that love and desire are not solely a function of conscious volition or instinctive attraction. The repressed and unconscious aspects of personality are involved, as well as an irrational dimension that includes instinct but also spirit and the spiritual. This is evidenced by the fact that love as a spirit or psychic force can disappear or remain absent unbeknownst to conscious intentions. This somewhat changeable and capricious side of love and desire is paralleled by the cyclical quality of nature and its seasons. In 1983 poet and folklorist Diane Wolkstein, with the assistance of historian Samuel Noah Kramer, reconstructed the myth based on the Sumerian version. She adapted its form to facilitate a more contemporary and continuous reading experience. She presented the life of a goddess from her youth to her maturity. Descent of Inanna into the Underworld, as interpreted by Wolkstein, represents a form of personal crisis that forces the individual to descend into their depths to "meet their Shadow". The resolution of the crisis entails a union between Inanna and her "dark side", personified as her sister Ereshkigal. During Inanna's descent into the Underworld, Ereshkigal assumes control, seizing her powers. Wolkstein interprets the final line of praise directed to Ereshkigal as a poem honoring the more negative aspects of the psyche and the necessity to embrace the Shadow. == See also ==