Background Since the
Muslim conquest of 711, much of the Iberian Peninsula had been under Muslim control. At its greatest geographical extent, Muslim control extended to most of the peninsula and part of present-day southern
France. By the 10th century, under the
Caliphate of Córdoba, the region was one of the most prosperous and advanced in Europe. Conflict with the
northern Christian kingdoms was recurrent, while mounting civil strife led to the fragmentation of al-Andalus into smaller
Taifa states in the early 11th century. This marked a precipitous decline in the power of Iberian Muslim polities and facilitated the centuries-long Christian
Reconquista and the recurrent conquest of al-Andalus by North African dynasties based in what is now
Morocco, commencing with the
Almoravids in the late 11th century and followed by the
Almohads in the mid 12th century. The Almohad regime grew more unstable following the defeat of the Almohads at the
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 by a coalition of Christian kingdoms from the north. In 1228, the Almohad caliph
Idris al-Ma'mun, wishing to focus on retaining control of the
Maghreb (North Africa), decided to abandon al-Andalus. The resultant power vacuum allowed local leaders to carve out their own small states, creating a third period of
Taifa kingdoms. Of these leaders, the most powerful was initially
Ibn Hud of
Murcia (), who had rebelled against the last Almohad governors and managed to unite much of what remained of al-Andalus. However, in 1231 Ibn Hud was defeated by the
Leónese and lost control of
Badajoz and the surrounding area, which compromised his authority and reputation as a reliable defender of al-Andalus.
Establishment of Nasrid rule One of Ibn Hud's foremost military commanders had been a man called
Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr, commonly known as Ibn al-Ahmar, who was born in
Arjona. His position in the army reportedly aroused the envy of others who accused him of planning a coup against Ibn Hud, forcing him to flee to Arjona. Ibn al-Ahmar's origins were likely modest, but he seems to have acquired a reputation for piety and as a successful military leader. With Ibn Hud's position weakened by his defeats, the inhabitants of the Arjona area declared Ibn al-Ahmar as their
emir after
Friday prayers on 16 July 1232 (26 Ramadan 629
AH). Ibn al-Ahmar was related to the Nasrids on his father's side and to the
Banu Ashqilula on his mother's side. These two families thus formed the initial core of his small army, along with other volunteers and Andalusi soldiers who had previously served the Almohads. Other prominent families, such as the Banu 'l-Mawl of
Cordoba and the Banu Sinadid of
Jaén, joined them over the next years and thereafter remained attached to the Nasrid court. With the
Reconquista in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of
Castile and
Aragon – under kings
Ferdinand III and
James I, respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus, which the Taifa kingdoms attempted in vain to resist. Ibn al-Ahmar's new status attracted support from many Muslim towns in the region hoping for protection. The Nasrid kingdom thus took shape initially by communities consenting to Ibn al-Ahmar's authority, rather than being submitted by conquest. Jaén,
Guadix, and
Baeza accepted his authority quickly in 1232, while
Almería accepted him 1238 and
Malaga did so in 1238 or 1239. Ibn al-Ahmar had more difficulty being recognized in larger cities, where his rule was seen as too harsh. Cordoba accepted him in 1232 for a few months and
Seville accepted him for only a month in 1234. He was temporarily forced to acknowledge the authority of Ibn Hud again in 1234, in return for the latter's recognition of his authority over Arjona and Jaén. Towards 1236, the Castilian offensive intensified and the strategic situation became increasingly precarious for al-Andalus. On multiple occasions, Ibn al-Ahmar responded by aligning himself with Ferdinand III, even against other Muslim rulers. When Ferdinand
conquered Cordoba in 1236, Ibn al-Ahmar was his ally. was the Nasrid citadel and residence in Granada. The
Alcazaba fortress, seen here, is its oldest part and was probably Ibn al-Ahmar's initial residence. In Granada, which was under the authority of Ibn Hud, the local Banu Khalid family led a propaganda campaign on behalf of the Nasrids. A revolt successfully stormed the city's citadel on 17 April 1238 (1 Ramadan 635 AH). Ibn al-Ahmar was then officially declared the new ruler with the help of Abu l-Hasan Ali al-Ru'ayni, a former secretary of Ibn Hud. On hearing of this, Ibn al-Ahmar quickly came to the city. After taking direct control of it, he decided to make it his new capital instead of Jaén, as Granada was a more important city in al-Andalus and its location was more strategic: it was geographically more defensible, farther from the Castilian frontier, and had better access to the sea. Additionally, he chose to move the ruler's residence from the Old Citadel () of the
Zirids on the
Albaicín hill to a new citadel he founded on the Sabika hill to the south. This became the
Alhambra (, the 'Red Citadel'). Despite Ibn al-Ahmar's earlier alliance with Castile, Ferdinand III still attacked and captured Arjona in 1244. In the summer of 1245 he began the siege of Jaén, a more important and well-fortified town. Ibn al-Ahmar initially supported the defenders, but in March 1246 he met with Ferdinand and negotiated a new treaty. In the Treaty of Jaén, referred to in Arabic sources as ('the great peace'), Ibn al-Ahmar agreed to surrender Jaén and to become Ferdinand's
vassal, while Castile recognized the existence of the Emirate of Granada as a state and agreed to a twenty-year truce. In 1248, Ibn al-Ahmar actively aided Ferdinand in his successful
siege of Seville by sending his own military contingent to assist the Castilians. The fall of Seville and the long-term truce with Castile effectively established the political map of the region until the 15th century. The peace allowed the Nasrid emirate to consolidate its territory and build up its governing institutions. While Granada's vassalage is emphasized by Christian sources, in practice Ibn al-Ahmar pledged allegiance to different suzerains at different times, depending on what was tactically advantageous. Aside from Ibn Hud in 1234, on subsequent occasions he also declared his allegiance to the
Abbasid Caliph in
Baghdad (before 1244), to the Almohad caliph
Abd al-Wahid II al-Rashid (also before 1244), and to the
Hafsids in
Tunis (in 1242 and 1264). Arabic sources do not mention his vassalage to Castile. In the long-term, the Treaty of Jaén still formed a basis for Nasrid relations with Castile, but the peace was often interrupted by wars, after which vassalage was often renewed. While conducting damaging raids into Christian territory, he invited both Muhammad II and the Banu Ashqilula leaders
(Abu Muhammad ibn Ashqilula of Malaga and Abu Ishaq of Guadix) to join him. In 1278, the Banu Ashqilula decided to give Malaga to Abu Yusuf, who now occupied this city as well. As a result, Muhammad II felt disillusioned and now saw the Marinids as a greater threat. He made an alliance with Alfonso X and incited the
Zayyanids of
Tlemcen, led by
Yaghmurasan, to attack the Marinids. While Alfonso X blockaded Malaga by sea, Muhammad II convinced the Marinid governor of Malaga to surrender the city to him in 1279. After a Castilian attack against Algeciras failed, however, Alfonso X made peace with the Marinids. In 1281, the Marinids, the Castilians, and the Banu Ashqilula joined forces to attack Granada. Muhammad II's forces managed to repel the attack, thanks in large part to the effectiveness of his new Zenata troops. The deaths of Alfonso X in 1284 and of Abu Yusuf in 1286 relieved the pressure on Granada. In 1288, Muhammad II was able to finally expel the last Banu Ashqilula from Guadix and they fled to Morocco afterward. The Marinids, now led by
Abu Ya'qub, still retained Tarifa and Algeciras. In 1292, the new Castilian king,
Sancho IV, made an alliance with Granada, Tlemcen, and
Portugal with the intention of removing the Marinids from the Iberian Peninsula. He captured Tarifa in October 1292. Muhammad II expected the city to be returned to Nasrid control after this, but Sancho IV refused to cede it and the city thus remained under Christian control permanently. When a Marinid attempt to retake Tarifa failed in 1294, Abu Yaq'ub decided to withdraw from the Iberian Peninsula completely and focus on his campaigns in the Maghreb instead. He ceded Algeciras and Ronda to the Nasrids, thus restoring some of Granada's former territories.
Nasrid offensive against Ceuta After Sancho IV's death in 1295, Muhammad II spent the rest of his reign going on the offensive against Castile, taking advantage of the weakness of the young new king,
Ferdinand IV. He nurtured an alliance with
James II of Aragon, raided Castilian territory, and recaptured two frontier forts at Alcaudete and Quesada. After his death in 1302, he was succeeded by his son,
Muhammad III (), who largely continued the same policies. Eventually, when Ferdinand IV solidified his control over his kingdom in 1306, Muhammad III changed diplomatic direction by making peace with him and resuming tribute payments to Castile. At the Alhambra, Muhammad III erected the
Partal Palace, which is the oldest palace still standing within the complex today, and commissioned the construction of the Alhambra's main mosque (no longer extant).'''' Muhammad III then set his aims on controlling the Strait of Gibraltar. With the help of
Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, a rebel Marinid prince, he incited a rebellion against the Marinids in Ceuta and in the Gomara Mountains of Morocco. In 1306 or 1307, he captured Ceuta. He secured an alliance with Tlemcen, which was under a
Marinid siege at the time, and proceeded to occupy
Asilah,
Larache, and
Ksar es-Seghir along the Moroccan coast. When the Marinid sultan Abu Ya'qub died in 1307, Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula declared himself sultan in his stead, but his bid for the throne failed as
Abu Thabit, Abu Ya'qub's grandson, lifted the siege of Tlemcen and returned to retake Asilah and Ksar es-Seghir. Uthman took refuge in Granada and entered into the service of the Nasrids as commander of the
Ghazis, a position which his family continued to hold for much of that century. Abu Thabit died in 1308, before he was able to retake Ceuta from the Nasrids. The Nasrid successes in the Strait of Gibraltar aroused concerns in Castile and Aragon. Ferdinand IV and James II agreed to launch a joint invasion of Granada, planning to divide the Nasrid territories between them. At the same time, internal turmoil rocked the Nasrid state. A ''coup d'état'' in March 1309 forced Muhammad III to abdicate in favour of his brother,
Nasr (). In the summer, Castile
captured Gibraltar with the aid of Aragonese ships, Aragon laid
siege to Almería, and a rebellion returned Ceuta to Marinid control. With Ceuta no longer under Granada's hold, Nasr was able to make peace with the new Marinid sultan,
Abu al-Rabi, and solicit his aid in the
defense of Algeciras. Both Algeciras and Almería successfully held out until 1310, when the Aragonese retreated. After managing to capture a few frontier forts, Castile's attacks also ended with the death of Ferdinand IV in 1312.
Challenges under Isma'il I and Muhammad IV , seen here inside the Alhambra, was originally constructed by
Isma'il I In 1312, Nasr's cousin,
Isma'il, launched a rebellion with the help of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula. In response, Nasr sought assistance from Castile, but this only made him more unpopular. In February 1314, the city opened its gates to the rebels and Nasr was forced to abdicate and retire to Guadix. Isma'il I () became the new sultan and proved to be an effective ruler. From Guadix, Nasr caused him trouble and secured an alliance with Castile, which was then under the reign of
Alfonso XI, a child overseen by two regents, Pedro and Juan. Border conflicts ensued until 1319, when Castile launched a major invasion and besieged Granada. In the
Battle of the Vega that followed, Granada scored one of its most decisive victories ever against the Castilians. Isma'il I went on to recover some towns, including Baeza and
Martos. Isma'il I was assassinated by a cousin in July 1325 and was succeeded by his son,
Muhammad IV (), who was still a child. During this time, the emirate was shaken by more internal turmoil, due in particular to the intrigues of the
Ghazis, led by Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula and his family. In 1327–28, they assassinated the
vizier, Ibn Mahruq, and took effective control of the young emir. Meanwhile, Alfonso XI, now grown up, was eager to establish himself as a
crusader. Aided by volunteers from
Northern Europe, he led his army on multiple offensives against Granada, culminating in the successful
siege of Teba in 1330. Muhammad IV reacted to the Castilian victories by seeking an alliance with the Marinids, to whom he ceded Ronda and Algeciras again in 1327 and 1328, respectively, to use as a base. In 1332, he visited
Fez to personally seek the intervention of the Marinid sultan,
Abu al-Hasan (), against Castile. Abu al-Hasan pledged his support and sent an army to Algeciras in 1333. It
besieged Gibraltar and captured it in June. By August, a Castilian counteroffensive had failed and Gibraltar remained in Muslim control thereafter until 1462. On 25 August 1333, Muhammad IV was assassinated by the sons of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula, who were opposed to his policy of close relations with the Marinids.
Apogee Yusuf I and the Battle of Rio Salado Muhammad IV was succeeded by his brother,
Yusuf I (), whose reign would mark the beginning of the Nasrid emirate's golden age. He began by expelling the Banu'l-Ula (the family of Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula) from his realm, in revenge for the killing of his brother, and placed another Marinid family member, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu, in charge of the
Ghazis. Alfonso XI remained a threat and the war between Castile and the Marinids and Nasrids continued, culminating in the
Battle of Rio Salado in 1340. At sea, the Marinid navy, assisted by Hafsid ships, defeated the Castilian fleet, assisted by
Catalan ships. On land, however, the combined forces of Castile and Portugal, along with volunteers from elsewhere in Europe, decisively defeated the Marinid and Nasrid forces at the Salado River, near Tarifa. The Christian victory was a major milestone, allowing Castile to capture important towns on the frontier, such as
Priego and
Alcala la Real in 1342. Castile also
captured Algeciras in 1344 after a difficult siege. The siege is also notable for the first recorded use of
cannons on the Iberian Peninsula, used in this case by the Muslim defenders. In the long term, the Battle of Rio Salado and the capture of Algeciras put an end to North African military interventions on the Iberian Peninsula, which had been a recurring feature of the conflicts around al-Andalus since the 11th century. This was partly due also to the weakness of the Marinid state, which suffered from internal disarray in the second half of the 14th century. Spurred by his successes, Alfonso XI went on to begin a new
siege of Gibraltar in 1349, but the following year he died from the
Black Death that was sweeping through the region. After his death, the siege ended, leaving Gibraltar under Marinid control. Over the following years, Castile became too preoccupied with internal conflicts to be a serious threat to Granada and a relative peace prevailed on the frontier. Despite the military defeats during his reign, Yusuf I seems to have remained trusted by his subjects and faced no serious internal challenges.
The reigns of Muhammad V Yusuf I was murdered suddenly in 1354 while at prayer in the main mosque of Granada, by a civilian described as a "madman". He was succeeded by his son,
Muhammad V. As Muhammad V was still a minor, state affairs were managed by the
hajib (chamberlain) Ridwan, the vizier
Ibn al-Khatib, and the commander of the
Ghazis, Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu. Together, they maintained a policy of peace with Castile, paying tribute and providing military assistance against Castile's enemies when requested, such as against Aragon in 1359. Muhammad V's reign was interrupted by a palace coup in August 1359 that placed his half-brother,
Isma'il II (), on the throne. Muhammad V escaped to Guadix, where he had support from the local garrison, but was unable to rally further support from Almería or from
Peter I, the Castilian king. He moved on and took refuge at the court of the Marinid ruler
Abu Salim in Fez. Isma'il II was soon assassinated in June 1360 by one of his former co-conspirators, a cousin named Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad, who took the throne as
Muhammad VI (). While in Fez, Muhammad V was accompanied by Ibn al-Khatib, who remained loyal to him. Both men also met
Ibn Khaldun, who supported their cause. Eventually, Muhammad V secured the support he needed from Peter of Castile. With the support of Peter, of Uthman ibn Yahya ibn Raḥḥu (the son of Yahya ibn Umar ibn Raḥḥu), and of another figure named Ali ibn Kumasha, he returned to the Iberian Peninsula in 1362. Peter and Muhammad V's forces marched on Granada, capturing various towns and the important city of Malaga. With his fortunes turning for the worse, Muhammad VI, reportedly on the advice of his allies, surrendered himself to Peter of Castile and asked for mercy. Peter executed him instead, leaving his ally Muhammad V to reclaim the throne in 1362. After his return to power, Muhammad V continued his policy of peace with Castile and remained pragmatic. Under his rule, Nasrid diplomacy was exceptionally effective, even amidst the convoluted politics of the Iberian Peninsula in this era. The ongoing
Castilian Civil War meant that Castile was not in a position to threaten Granada. Muhammad V initially supported Peter, his former ally, against his rival,
Henry of Trastámara. He sent troops to help Peter, which provoked Henry's Aragonese allies into attacking Granadan ships at sea. Muhammad V, in turn, used these Christian attacks to solicit materials and funds from
Musa II, the Zayyanid sultan in Tlemcen. When Henry captured Seville in 1366, forcing Peter to flee north, Muhammad V adapted by negotiating a new peace with Henry. When Peter returned to Seville in 1367, Muhammad V again renewed his loyalty to him. When Peter was assassinated in 1369, leaving Castile in further chaos, Muhammad V took advantage of the situation to
recapture Algeciras that year. He destroyed the city and from then on its former territory became attached to Gibraltar instead. , built by
Muhammad V after 1362 Domestically, Muhammad V eliminated the office of the , the chief of the
Ghazis, in 1370, placing the Zenata troops under the direct command of the Nasrid family for the first time. The emirate was relatively free of internal conflict during his second reign. This period also marked the pinnacle of Nasrid culture. The vizier Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1375) was a major figure of literature, as was his successor,
Ibn Zamrak (d. 1392). In the Alhambra, Muhammad V undertook major construction projects, including the
Palace of the Lions.''
For the general population in the city, he sponsored the construction of a hospital (maristan''), the
Maristan of Granada, between 1365 and 1367. His reign was also a high point of cultural exchange with the Castilian court of Peter in Seville, who built his palace in the
Alcazar in the style of Granada's art and architecture.
Decline and fall Political instability Muhammad V died in 1391, bringing an end to the Nasrid dynasty's golden years. Until its fall in the late 15th century, the dynasty became embroiled in succession disputes, rivalries, and assassinations. Internal conflicts often revolved around the
Banu Sarraj family (known in Spanish sources as the Abencerrajes) and their rivals, who ruthlessly pursued their own interests at the expense of the emirate's stability. Externally, the emirate remained at peace during some periods thanks mainly to the fact that Castile continued to struggle with its own internal problems as well. War with Castile did break out between 1405 and 1410, followed by a period of peace until 1428. External wars and internal disputes continued through the 1430s and 1440s. During the early reign of
Henry IV (), Castile resumed a more ambitious crusading military policy against Granada. The emirate's position was exacerbated by violent internal confrontations with the Banu Sarraj. This political chaos contributed to the
final capture of Gibraltar by Castile in 1462.
Fall of Granada In the mid-15th century, Castile was preoccupied with several civil conflicts and disputes over succession. Henry IV had only one child,
Isabella, who in 1468 married
Ferdinand, the son of
John II of Aragon. By 1479, both Henry IV and John II had died, leaving Isabella and Ferdinand as rulers of a united Castile and Aragon. This was a pivotal turning point, as Granada could no longer play the two kingdoms against each other to ensure its own survival. The new royal couple, known as the
Catholic Monarchs, were also united in their intention to conquer the emirate. The war against Granada offered an opportunity for Ferdinand and Isabella to harness the restless Castilian nobility against a common enemy and instill subjects with a sense of loyalty to the crown. Granada's successful capture of the Castilian frontier town of
Zahara in December 1481 marked the last time it was able to gain ground against Castile. The
Granada War began in 1482, with Christian forces capturing
Alhama de Granada in February. This was a major Christian victory, as Alhama was located in the heart of the emirate, on the road between Granada and the emirate's second city, Malaga. This marked the beginning of a grinding 10-year war. The Christian force was made up of troops provided by Castilian nobles, towns, and the
Santa Hermandad, as well as Swiss mercenaries. The Catholic Church also encouraged other Christian countries to offer their troops and their finances to the war effort. Meanwhile, civil war erupted in Granada as a result of succession struggles in the Nasrid ruling house, which undermined any focused resistance to the Spanish advance. In July 1482,
Muhammad XI, known as Boabdil to the Christians, led a successful coup against his father,
Abu'l Hasan. Abu'l Hasan, a capable military leader, was forced to flee to Malaga and the emirate was divided between him and his son. Boabdil was subsequently captured by the Castilians in 1483 and was only released after making major concessions that undermined his credibility in Granada. He agreed to resettle in Guadix while his father resumed control of Granada. Abu'l Hasan died in 1485, shortly after abdicating to his brother,
Muhammad ibn Sa'd (Muhammad XII), known as al-Zaghal. and the
Castle of Gibralfaro, part of the elaborate fortifications that protected Malaga in the Nasrid period|left After this, the Spanish campaigns continued unabated and made slow but steady progress, while internal strife continued among the Nasrids. Boabdil returned to Granada in 1487, this time with Castilian support, and managed to force al-Zaghal to flee. Once in control, he made initial offers to surrender Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella and he even cooperated at times with the Spanish forces. Meanwhile, al-Zaghal continued to lead a fierce resistance against the Spanish from outside Granada, forcing the Catholic Monarchs to deal with him first. The
Siege of Málaga took place from May to August 1487 and was one of the most difficult and prolonged engagements of the war. The strongly fortified city put up a vigorous resistance, led by one of al-Zaghal's commanders, while Boabdil continued to stand back or actively help the Catholic Monarchs. Because the city resisted, its inhabitants were given little mercy and either killed or enslaved, which encouraged other Muslim towns to surrender more quickly after this. Al-Zaghal held out a while longer in Almería, but any hope of successful resistance ended after the Spanish capture of Baeza in November 1489. He negotiated the surrender of Almería and Guadix and agreed to retire himself to the
Alpujarras region, but soon afterwards he abandoned al-Andalus completely. In 1489–90, he sold all his lands and moved to
Oran (present-day
Algeria) in North Africa. '', a 19th-century depiction by Spanish painter
Francisco Pradilla Ortiz Only Granada remained under Muslim control by 1490. Boabdil and the remaining Nasrid elites negotiated with Ferdinand and Isabella, though little progress was made either way during that year. By 1491, the city itself lay under siege. On 25 November 1491, the
Treaty of Granada was signed, setting out the conditions for surrender. On 2 January 1492, Boabdil surrendered Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella.
Aftermath Although some remained, the Castilians encouraged the Nasrid aristocracy to leave for North Africa, as it would likely frustrate any attempts by the Muslim population to reorganize themselves politically. After the surrender of Granada, Boabdil remained for a little over a year in a country estate in the mountainous Alpujarras, as lord of , It is known that many Muslims emigrated to Morocco after the departure of their emir, and some of them successively emigrated to
Egypt and the
Levant. For Jews as well, a period of tolerance under Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula came to an end with their
expulsion by the Christian monarchy in 1492. The Christian conquest of Granada did not extinguish the spirit of the
Reconquista. Isabella urged Christians to pursue a conquest of North Africa. Initially, under the conditions of surrender, the Muslims who remained were guaranteed their property, laws, customs, and religion. This however, did not ensue, causing the Muslims to rebel against their Christian rulers, culminating with
an uprising in 1500. The rebellion was seen as a chance to formally end the Treaty of Granada, withdrawing the rights of Muslims. Muslims in the area were given the choice of expulsion or conversion. Those who remained and officially converted were thereafter known as
Moriscos.
Philip II of Spain () issued multiple decrees against the Morisco population, including the decree issued in 1563, which prohibited them from carrying arms, and the decree issued in 1566, which prohibited the use of the Arabic language. Philip believed that the most effective way to solve the problem of the Moriscos lay in confiscating their properties and lands and completely erasing their identity, thus ending their existence as a distinct community. He issued a decree in the year 1567 forbidding them to wear their traditional embroidered clothes, mandating the use of Christian hats and pants, and further prohibited their language, customs and celebrations. When the Muslims tried to start a dialogue to mitigate its effects, the authorities insisted on implementing its content. In 1568, a
new rebellion broke out, which lasted three years and spread to most of the areas where there was a Muslim presence. The Spanish authorities eventually succeeded in repressing it. During the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire reached the height of its power and prestige, recognized as a major power by the
Holy Roman Empire and the Christian kingdoms of Western Europe. With this position of strength, Sultan
Suleiman the Magnificent () turned his attention to the Iberian Peninsula. This coincided with the rise of
Khayr al-Din Barbarossa in
Algiers and the establishment of Ottoman authority over Algeria. After preparing the necessary bases for their fleets at
Ifriqiya (roughly present-day Tunisia), the plan was to attack Spain itself in order to recapture
Andalusia. Both Spain and Portugal were considered the main threat to the Islamic world due to the presence of their fleets in the
Indian Ocean that threatened Muslim
trade in the East. This attack would thus also serve to force both naval powers to fall back in order to defend themselves. Khair al-Din Barbarossa had previously begun attacking Spanish and European ships in general in retaliation for the treatment of Muslims in Andalusia. He also sent his ships to transport Muslims and Jews fleeing the Inquisition and Christianization attempts. However, Suleiman the Magnificent died in 1566 without implementing the plan against Spain. His son and successor,
Selim II (), rejected all his father's options and decided to
conquer the island of Cyprus instead, believing that the
Venetians should be removed from that island before he could consider the recovery of Andalusia. After the Ottomans became preoccupied on several eastern fronts and were defeated in the west at the naval
Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the offensive nature of the Ottoman strategy in the Mediterranean came to an end, and with it the idea of attacking Spain and recapturing Andalusia. The other major Muslim power in the region was the
Saadi Sultanate in Morocco. In 1603, the Saadi sultan
Ahmad al-Mansur died and a civil war broke out between his three sons. One of them,
Muhammad al-Sheikh al-Ma'mun, sought the help of
Philip III to eliminate his two brothers and ascend to the throne. On the other hand, the Moriscos in
Valencia and eastern Andalusia supported his brother
Zidan al-Nasir, on the condition that he invaded Spain. The Spanish king took that as a motive to remove the Moriscos. The
Council of State discussed this matter and presented a report recommending that the Moriscos should be expelled for religious and political reasons. The most important reason stated was the threat of invasion by the Ottomans or the Moroccans, who might try to use Granada as a toehold from which to attack the rest of the peninsula. In 1609, a decree was issued mandating the
expulsion of all Moriscos, finally removing any threat they might pose. ==Society==