Life of Mani ,
Tarim Basin, China. silk painting ''Mani's Birth'' Mani was an
Iranian born in 216 AD in or near
Ctesiphon (now
al-Mada'in, Iraq) in the
Parthian Empire. According to the
Cologne Mani-Codex, Mani's parents were members of the
Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the
Elcesaites. Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in the late-
Aramaic Syriac language. The seventh, the
Shabuhragan, was written by Mani in
Middle Persian and presented to the
Sasanian emperor Shapur I by Mani himself. Although there is no evidence that Shapur I was a follower of Mani, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries. According to
Michel Tardieu, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as the
Manichaean alphabet, which was used in all Manichaean works written within the
Sasanian Empire, whether in Syriac or
Middle Persian, as well as in most works written within the
Uyghur Khaganate. The primary language of
Babylonia—and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire—at that time was
Eastern Middle Aramaic, which had three principle dialects:
Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, the language of the
Babylonian Talmud;
Mandaic, the language of
Mandaeism; and Syriac, which was the language of Mani and the
Syriac Christians. During the spread of Manichaeism, established religions like
Zoroastrianism remained prevalent, while
early Christianity was gaining both social and political influence. Despite having fewer followers, Manichaeism attracted the support of several high-ranking political figures. With the backing of the Sasanian Empire, Mani embarked on missionary expeditions. However, after failing to gain the favor of the next generation of Persian royalty and facing disapproval from the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani was imprisoned and ultimately died awaiting execution by the Persian emperor
Bahram I. His death is estimated to have occurred around 276–277 AD.
Influences '', 13th-century Chinese Manichaean silk painting Mani believed that the teachings of
the Buddha,
Zoroaster, and
Jesus of Nazareth were incomplete; that his revelations were meant to be shared
universally; and that his teachings comprised a new "religion of light". Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was 12 and again at 24, and that over this period he grew dissatisfied with the Elcesaites, the Gnostic sect of Jewish Christianity he was born into. Iain Gardner, in
The Founder of Manichaeism, argues that
Jain influence on Mani is likely due to the extreme
asceticism and specific doctrines of
Mahāvīra's community, making it even more plausible than influence from the Buddha. Richard C. C. Fynes, in 1996, argued that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of
plant souls, were transmitted from
Western Kshatrapa territories to
Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs. Mani wore colorful clothing, which was unusual for the time, and reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persian
magus or
warlord, earning him ire in the
Greco-Roman world. Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements like
Mandaeism; Aramaic translations of
non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at
Qumran (e.g., the
Book of Enoch); and by the Syriac
dualist Gnostic writer
Bardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani). According to biographies preserved by
ibn al-Nadim and the Persian
polymath al-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" (; ); (), in the Cologne Mani-Codex; "Double"; "Protective Angel"; or "Divine Self". This spirit taught him wisdom, which he later developed into a religion. It was his "twin" who brought Mani to
self-realization. Mani claimed to be the
Paraclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the book of
John 14:16 of the
New Testament. '' depicts Jesus as a Manichaean prophet. According to the scholar of Manichaeism
Samuel N. C. Lieu, the theological roles of
Jesus in Manichaeism were highly complex:
Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ". Manichaean tradition is noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras, including the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus himself. Academics note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-century
Muslim historians like
al-Biruni and
ibn al-Nadim in his
al-Fihrist; the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the
Seal of the Prophets." However, given the Islamic milieu of
Arabian Peninsula and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaeans would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not
Muhammad, was the Seal of the Prophets. In reality, for Mani, the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" was not a reference to his finality in a lineage of prophets as it means in
Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who attest to his message as a "seal"). (Khocho), China Other textual sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic Jewish
Book of Enoch,
2 Enoch, and
The Book of Giants. Mani quoted the latter directly and expanded upon it, making it—a specifically Manichaean version—one of the six original Syriac writings of the Manichaeans. Besides short references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original editions of the Manichaean
Book of Giants were available until the 20th century. Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic
Book of Giants, which was analyzed and published by
Józef Milik in 1976, and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by
Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were discovered along with the
Dead Sea Scrolls in the
Judaean Desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of the
Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in
Turpan. Henning wrote in his analysis of them: By comparing the cosmology of the books of Enoch to the
Book of Giants, as well as the description of the Manichaean myth, scholars have observed that the Manichaean cosmology can be described as being based, in part, on the description of the cosmology developed in detail within the
Enochic literature. This literature describes the being who the prophets saw in their ascent to
Heaven as a king who sits on a throne in the highest of
the heavens. In Manichaean myth, this being, the "Great King of Honor", became a deity who guards the entrance to the World of Light, placed at the seventh of ten heavens. In the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, overall, and in the original Syriac section of Manichaean scriptures quoted by
Theodore bar Konai, in the
abhirati with the Cross of Light, a symbol of Manichaeism Noting Mani's travels to the
Kushan Empire (several religious paintings in
Bamyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselytizing career,
Richard Foltz postulates Buddhist influences in Manichaeism:
Lokakṣema, a Buddhist monk living in second-century Kushan, began translating the scriptures of
Pure Land Buddhism into Chinese during the century preceding Mani's advent. Extant
Chinese Manichaean texts frequently employ uniquely Buddhist terms taken from the Pure Land scriptures, including the term "
pure land" () itself, argued Peter Bryder. However, the central object of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism,
Amitābha, the "Buddha of Infinite Light", does not appear in Chinese Manichaeism and seems to have been replaced by another deity.
Spread Roman Empire Manichaeism reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq in 280, who had been in
Egypt in 244 and 251. The religion was flourishing in the
Faiyum in 290. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the reign of
Pope Miltiades. In 291, persecution arose in the Sasanian Empire with the murder of the apostle
Mar Sisin orchestrated by Emperor
Bahram II and the slaughter of many Manichaeans. In 302, the first official Roman state reaction and legislation against Manichaeism was issued under
Diocletian. In an official edict entitled
De Maleficiis et Manichaeis, compiled in the
Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum, and addressed to the
proconsul of Africa, Diocletian wrote: By 354,
Hilary of Poitiers wrote that Manichaeism was a significant force in
Roman Gaul. In 381, Christians requested that
Theodosius I strip Manichaeans of their
civil rights. Starting in 382, the emperor issued a series of edicts to suppress Manichaeism and punish its followers. was Manichaean as a young adult.
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism in the year 387. The Roman emperor
Theodosius I had issued a decree ordering the execution of all Manichaean monks in 382, and would establish
Christianity as the Roman state religion in 391. Due to Roman persecution, Manichaeism nearly disappeared from Western Europe in the fifth century and from the
eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century. Some modern scholars have suggested that Manichaean ways of thinking influenced the development of some of Augustine's ideas, such as the nature of
good and evil; the concept of hell; the separation of groups into 'elect', 'hearers', and 'sinners'; hostility toward human experience and sexual activity; and his dualistic theology. '' criticizing Manichaeism
Central Asia in his
Western Paradise with
Indians,
Tibetans, and
Central Asians, with two symbols of Manichaeism: Sun and Cross Adherents existed in
Sogdia in Central Asia.
Uyghur khagan Bögü Qaghan (759–780) converted to the religion in 763 after a three-day discussion with preachers. The Babylonian headquarters sent high-ranking clerics to the Uyghurs, and Manichaeism remained the state religion for about a century before the disestablishment of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.
South Siberia After the defeat of the Uyghur Khaganate by the
Yenisei Kyrgyz, Manichaeism spread north to the
Minusinsk Hollow. Archaeological excavations in the
Uybat valley revealed ruins of a Manichaean center there, which included six temples and five sanctuaries of the elements; architecturally, it was similar to the Sogdian structures in Tuva and Xinjiang. In the 1970s, a Manichaean temple dating to the 8th to 10th centuries was excavated 90 km from the Uybat center in the Puyur-sukh valley.
L.R Kyzlasov interpreted the finds as evidence of the adoption of Manichaeism as an official religion in the
Kyrgyz Khaganate. Few
Khakassian Manichaean epitaphs confirm this version; the Manichaean script also influenced the Yenisei runic script at a late stage of its development. South Siberian Manichaeism existed before the Mongol conquest. Later, it influenced the formation of the culture of the Sayano-Altai Turks (
Altaians,
Khakas,
Tuvans), as well as the
Khants,
Selkups,
Kets and
Evenks. This influence affected the everyday beliefs of the indigenous peoples and the lexical composition of their languages.
China In the East, it spread along trade routes as far as
Chang'an, the capital of
Tang China. After the Tang dynasty, some Manichaean groups participated in
peasant movements. Many rebel leaders used religion to mobilize followers. In
Song and
Yuan dynasty China, remnants of Manichaeism continued to leave a legacy, contributing to sects such as the
Red Turbans. During the Song dynasty, the Manichaeans were derogatorily referred by the Chinese as
Chīcài shìmó (, meaning that they "abstain from meat and worship demons"). An account in
Fozu Tongji, an important historiography of Buddhism in China compiled by Buddhist scholars during 1258–1269, states that the Manichaeans worshipped the "White Buddha" and that their leader wore a violet headgear, while their followers wore white costumes. Many Manichaeans participated in rebellions against the Song government, which were eventually quelled. After that, all governments suppressed Manichaeism and its followers, and the religion was banned in
Ming China in 1370. The nomadic
Uyghur Khaganate lasted for less than a century (744–840) in the southern Siberian steppe, with the fortified city of
Ordu-Baliq on the Upper
Orkhon River as its capital. Before the end of the year (763), Manichaeism was declared the official religion of the Uyghur state. Boku Tekin banned all shamanistic rituals previously in use. His subjects likely accepted his decision. That much results from a report that the proclamation of Manichaeism as the state religion was met with enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. In an inscription in which the Kaghan speaks for himself, he promised the Manichaean high priests (the "Elect") that if they gave orders, he would promptly follow them and respond to their requests. An incomplete manuscript found in the
Turfan Oasis gives Boku Tekin the title of
zahag-i Mani ("Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani"), a title of majestic prestige among the Manichaeans of Central Asia. Nonetheless, despite the apparently willing conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeism, traces of previous shamanistic practices persisted. For instance, in 765, only two years after the official conversion, during a military campaign in China, Uyghur troops called upon magicians to perform several specific rituals. Manichaean Uyghurs continued to treat with great respect a sacred forest in
Otuken.
Iran Manichaeans in Iran tried to assimilate their religion along with
Islam in the Muslim
caliphates. Relatively little is known about the religion during the first century of Islamic rule. During the early caliphates, Manichaeism attracted many followers. It had a significant appeal among Muslim society, especially among the elites. A part of Manichaeism that specifically appealed to the
Sasanians was the names of the Manichaean gods. The names Mani assigned to the gods of his religion show identification with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, even though some of the divine beings he incorporated are non-Iranian. For example, Jesus, Adam, and Eve were named Xradesahr, Gehmurd, and Murdiyanag. Because of these familiar names, Manichaeism did not feel completely foreign to the Zoroastrians. Due to the appeal of its teachings, many Sasanians adopted the ideas of its theology and some even became dualists. Not only were the citizens of the Sasanian Empire intrigued by Manichaeism, but so was the ruler at the time of its introduction,
Shapur I. As the
Denkard reports, Shapur, the first
King of Kings, was very well-known for gaining and seeking knowledge of any kind. Because of this, Mani knew that Shapur would lend an ear to his teachings and accept him. Mani had explicitly stated while introducing his teachings to Shapur, that his religion should be seen as a reform of
Zoroaster's teachings. Tolerance toward Manichaeism decreased after the death of Shapur I. His son,
Hormizd I, who became king, still allowed for Manichaeism in the empire, but he also greatly trusted the Zoroastrian priest,
Kartir. After Hormizd's short reign, his oldest brother,
Bahram I, became king. Bahram I held Kartir in high esteem, and he also had many religious ideals different from those of Hormizd and his father, Shapur I. Due to Kartir's influence, Zoroastrianism was strengthened throughout the empire, which in turn diminished Manichaeism. Bahram sentenced Mani to prison, and he died there. and there was no formal existence of Manichaeism in the Hejaz. Under the eighth-century
Abbasid Caliphate, Arabic and the adjectival term could denote many different things, but it seems to have primarily—or at least initially—signified a follower of Manichaeism. From the ninth century, it is reported that Caliph
al-Ma'mun tolerated a community of Manichaeans. During the early Abbasid period, the Manichaeans underwent persecution. The third Abbasid caliph,
al-Mahdi, persecuted the Manichaeans, establishing an inquisition against dualists who, if found guilty of heresy, refused to renounce their beliefs and were executed. Their persecution was ended in the 780s by
Harun al-Rashid. During the reign of the caliph
al-Muqtadir, many Manichaeans fled from
Mesopotamia to
Khorasan in fear of persecution, and the base of the religion was later shifted to
Samarkand. Mar Ammo traveled to the previous Parthian lands of eastern Iran, which bordered Bactria. A translation of Persian texts states the following from the perspective of Mar Ammo: "They had arrived at the watch post of Kushān (Bactria), then the spirit of the border of the eastern province appeared in the shape of a girl, and he (the spirit) asked me, 'Ammo, what do you intend? From where have you come?' I said, 'I am a believer, a disciple of Mani, the Apostle.' That spirit said, 'I do not receive you. Return from where you have come.'" Despite the initial rejection Mar Ammo faced, the text records that Mani's spirit appeared to Mar Ammo and asked him to persevere and read the chapter "The Collecting of the Gates" from
The Treasure of the Living. Once he did so, the spirit returned, transformed, and said, "I am Bag Ard, the frontier guard of the Eastern Province. When I receive you, then the gate of the whole East will be opened in front of you." It seemed that this "border spirit" was a reference to the local Eastern Iranian goddess
Ardoksho, who was prevalent in Bactria.'', from left to right:
Mani,
Zoroaster,
Buddha and
Jesus Syncretism and translation Manichaeism claimed to present the purified and completed teachings of Adam,
Abraham,
Noah, Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus that had become corrupted and misinterpreted. Accordingly, as it spread, it adapted deities from other religions into forms it could use for its scriptures. Its original
Eastern Middle Aramaic texts already contained stories of Jesus. As the faith spread eastward and its scriptures were translated into Iranian languages, the names of the Manichaean deities were often transformed into those of Zoroastrian
yazatas. Thus,
Abbā ḏəRabbūṯā ("The Father of Greatness"), the highest Manichaean deity of Light, in
Middle Persian texts might either be translated literally as
pīd ī wuzurgīh or substituted with the name of the deity
Zurwān. Similarly, the Manichaean primordial figure
Nāšā Qaḏmāyā ("The Original Man") was rendered
Ohrmazd Bay after the Zoroastrian god
Ohrmazd. This process continued in Manichaeism's meeting with
Chinese Buddhism, during which, for example, the original Aramaic (the "call" from the World of Light to those seeking rescue from the World of Darkness) is identified in the Chinese-language scriptures with
Guanyin ( or
Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, literally, "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]", the
bodhisattva of Compassion). Manichaeism influenced some early texts and traditions of
proto-orthodox and other forms of early Christianity, as well as doing the same for branches of
Zoroastrianism,
Judaism,
Buddhism, and
Islam.
Persecution and suppression Manichaeism was repressed by the
Sasanian Empire.
Theodosius I issued a death decree for all Manichaean monks in 382. The religion was vigorously attacked and persecuted by both the
Christian Church and the Roman state, and the religion almost disappeared from western Europe in the fifth century and from the eastern portion of the empire in the sixth century. , third Khagan of the
Uyghur Khaganate, to
Manicheism in 762: detail of Bögü Qaghan in a suit of armour, kneeling to a Manichean high priest. 8th century Manichean manuscript (
MIK III 4979) In 732,
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang banned any Chinese from converting to the religion, calling it a heretical religion and confusing people by claiming it was Buddhism. However, the foreigners who followed the religion were allowed to practice it without punishment. After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, which was the chief patron of Manichaeism (which was also the state religion of the Khaganate) in China, all Manichaean temples in China except in the two capitals and
Taiyuan were closed down and never reopened since these temples were viewed as a symbol of foreign arrogance by the Chinese (see
Cao'an). Even those that were allowed to remain open did not for long. Its core teaching influences many religious sects in China, including the
White Lotus movement. According to
Wendy Doniger, Manichaeism may have continued to exist in the
Xinjiang region until the
Mongol conquest in the 13th century. Manicheans also suffered persecution for some time under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. In 780, the third Abbasid Caliph,
al-Mahdi, launched a campaign of inquisition against those who were "dualist heretics" or "Manichaeans," known as the
zindīq. He appointed a "master of the heretics" ( ), an official whose task was to pursue and investigate suspected dualists, who the Caliph then examined. Those found guilty who refused to recant their beliefs were executed. Manichaean pamphlets were still in circulation in Greek in 9th-century
Byzantine Constantinople, as the patriarch
Photios summarizes and discusses one that he has read by Agapius in his
Bibliotheca.
Later movements associated with Manichaeism During the Middle Ages, several movements emerged that were collectively described as "Manichaean" by the Catholic Church and persecuted as Christian heresies through the establishment of the
Inquisition in 1184. They included the
Cathar churches of Western Europe. Other groups, sometimes referred to as "neo-Manichaean," were the
Paulician movement, which arose in Armenia, and the
Bogomils in Bulgaria and Serbia. As there is no presence of Manichaean mythology or church terminology in the writings of these groups, there has been some dispute among historians as to whether these groups were descendants of Manichaeism. Manichaeism could have influenced the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars. However, these groups left few records, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous. Regardless of its accuracy, the charge of Manichaeism was leveled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to make contemporary heresies conform to those combatted by the church fathers.
Legacy in present-day Some sites are preserved in
Xinjiang,
Zhejiang, and
Fujian in
China. The
Cao'an temple is the most widely-known and best-preserved Manichaean building, Local villagers near Cao'an still worship Mani, albeit with little distinction between Mani-as-Buddha and Gautama Buddha. Other temples in China associated with Manichaeism remain standing, including the
Xuanzhen Temple, noted for its
stele. Some platforms on the
internet and social media are spreading some of the teachings of Manichaeism. Some people are registered in these electronic sources, and some scholars and students in the field of religious studies and the arts continue to study Manichaeism. In 2018, rituals were conducted for the Lin Deng 林瞪 (1003–1059), a Chinese Manichaean leader who lived during the Song dynasty in the three villages of Baiyang 柏洋村, Shangwan 上萬村, and Tahou 塔後村 in Baiyang Township, Xiapu County, Fujian. == Teachings and beliefs ==