History of lute-family instruments

Theory In theory, families of musical instruments descend from the musical bow. Henri Breuil surveyed the Trois Frères caves in France and made an engraving that attempted to reproduce a c. 13,000 BC cave painting into a black-and-white lithograph engraving. His engraving showed a mysterious figure, a "man camouflaged to resemble a bison", in the midst of a mass of herd-animals, "herding the beasts and playing the musical bow". The artwork is confused, and those who are trying to reproduce the art in color have had to work to bring out legible images. Whether the bow in the cave illustration is a musical instrument or the hunting tool in a Paleolithic hunt, musicologists have considered the idea that the bow could be a possible relative or ancestor to chordophones, the lutes lyres, harps and zither families. Curt Sachs said that there was good reason not to consider ''hunters' bows'' as likely musical bows. One reason was that the oldest known musical bows were 10 feet long, useless for hunting, and that "musical bows were not associated with hunters' beliefs and ceremonies". He considered this evidence in support of the theory that the musical bow was ancestral to the pierced lute. Theory disputed This picture of musical bow to harp bow is theory and has been contested. In 1965 Franz Jahnel wrote his criticism stating that the early ancestors of plucked instruments are not currently known. He felt that the harp bow was a long cry from the sophistication of the 4th-millennium BC civilization that took the primitive technology and created "technically and artistically well-made harps, lyres, citharas and lutes". == Long-necked lutes ==

The most ancient lutes had long necks. These survived into the modern era as the tanbur, which Sachs said "faithfully preserved the outer appearance of the ancient lutes of Babylonia and Egypt". Sachs, one of those who created the widespread system of musical instrument classification idea today, categorized long lutes with a "pierced lute" and "long neck lute". The long lute had an attached neck, and included the sitar, tanbur and tar (dutār 2 strings, setār 3 strings, čatār 4 strings, pančtār 5 strings). Dumbrill documented more than 3000 years of iconographic evidence for the lutes in Mesopotamia, in his book The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. According to Dumbrill, the lute family included instruments in Mesopotamia prior to 3000 BC. Like Sachs, Dumbrill saw length as distinguishing lutes, dividing the Mesopotamian lutes into a long variety and a short. His book does not cover the shorter instruments that became the European lute, beyond showing examples of shorter lutes in the ancient world. He focuses on the longer lutes of Mesopotamia, various types of necked chordophones that developed throughout ancient world: Greek, Egyptian (in the Middle Kingdom), Iranian (Elamite and others), Hittite, Roman, Bulgar, Turkic, Indian, Chinese, Armenian/Cilician cultures. He names among the long lutes, the pandura and the tanbur Experts who study the people from ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia region argue as to which people the long-necked people originated. Candidates include "East Semites" of Akkad, peoples in Elam and "West Semites". The instrument was probably distributed by the Hittites, Hurrians and Kassites, rather than invented by them. Later examples exist from 2000 to 1500 BC (Uruk period 4). Examples were found in Khafage, Mari, Isin or Larsa, Iran, Babylon, Tell Mamabaqat Syria, Susa, and Alaca Huyuk. Sachs described the Mesopotamian lutes as having "very small bodies, long necks with many frets, two strings attached without pegs and were played with a plectron". The long lute entered Egypt after its conquest of Southwest Asia, when it began receiving tribute in the form of "singing and dancing-girls with their instruments", illustrated in paintings at Tell El-Amarna. The strings were "wound around the top of the handle" and tied with thongs, the tassels visible in some surviving artwork. Nora E. Scott gave more details about the Egyptian lute's construction, saying that the lute that belonged to Har-Mose, 1500 BC, had two bridges, the triangular bridge at the bottom, attached to the stick and protruding through the skin, and another on the neck. The string passed over the second bridge and was tied down to the neck with linen cord to keep its tension. A century later at Mantineia, the pierced lute would be changed, with a broader neck, somewhat shorter than the earlier Egyptian style lute, but still a long-necked instrument, with the neck longer than the soundbox. A second version at Tanagra in 200 BC was carved from a single piece of wood, neck and soundbox, pear-shaped much as the short-lutes that later arrived from Central Asia. Still another form of the pandura would have a one-piece carved triangular body with skin stretched across it. Sachs describes the pandura as having three strings, tied still to the neck as there were no pegs, and a small body. A story about St Theodoulos the Stylite says that he was tested by God, forced to associate with Cornelius the pandouros (pandura player). According to the story, "Theodoulos is horrified at being associated with a man from the theatre" and more horrified to find "Cornelius at the Hippodrome, holding his instrument with one hand, and with the other, a bareheaded prostitute". Lack of artwork does not necessarily mean absence of the lute in Roman and Greek society. What images have survived of Greek and Roman pandura players are from high-class art. In the statuary, plaques and a mosaic in the Byzantine emperor's palace, players are dignified and clothed. The art, made for the wealthy upper classes doesn't show the lower-class places where Theodoulos was shocked. Gallery: Egyptian, Coptic or Byzantine lutes File:North African long-lute 4th century.jpg|Coptic, Byzantine or Egyptian long-necked lute, 4th century AD, Qasr Libya (the Byzantine city of Theodoureas) File:Coptic lute.jpg|Coptic, Byzantine or Egyptian lute, c. 1–500 AD File:Coptic lute backside.jpg|Coptic, Byzantine or Egyptian lute, c. 1–500 AD File:Coptic lute without soundboard.jpg|Coptic, Byzantine or Egyptian lute, c. 1–500 AD, neck is hollow like rubab neck File:Byzantine Pandore.gif|Byzantine pandura, 6th-century AD depiction on mosaic in the Great Palace in Constantinople. The instrument has three strings and is being played with a plectrum. File:Bear with lute-family instrument.jpg|Unknown lute-family instrument, 723-743 AD Qusayr 'Amra. Byzantine/Islamic culture was mixing at time of painting. File:Saint Aemillian of Cogilla herding sheep with cowhown and lute.jpg|1060-1080 A.D., Spain. Saint Aemilian of Cogolla herding sheep with cowhown and 3-stringed lute. Lute has similar shape to pandura. Peghead resembles pegheads on cythara in Utrecht Psalter. File:Cappella Palatina rubab.jpg|Unknown lute-family instrument, possible rubab or Coptic lute. C. 1140 AD, Capella Palatina, Sicily. Tanbur family Tanburs have been present in Mesopotamia since the Akkadian era, or the 3rd millennium BC. Three figurines have been found in Susa that belong to 1500 BC, and in hands of one of them is a tanbur-like instrument. Also an image on the rocks near Mosul that belong to about 1000 BC shows tanbur players. and the word 'tanbur' is found in middle Persian and Parthian language texts, for instance in Drakht-i Asurig, Bundahishn, Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, and Khosrow and Ridag. Until the early 20th century, the names chambar and jumbush were applied to instruments in northern Iraq. Persians have another naming system for differentiating different styles of the instrument, using the word tar with a number for the number of strings or courses of strings. Instruments named this way include the dutar (2 strings/courses), setar (three strings/courses), cartar (4 strings/courses) and panctar (five strings/courses). File:Osman Hamdi Bey - Two Musician Girls.jpg|Ottoman tambur, also known as Turkish tambur, 1880 File:YaylıTambur of DrOzanYarman.jpg|Yaylı tambur a variation of Turkish tambur, metal and uses a bow File:Nishat Khan Varanasi 2009.jpg|Indian sitar File:Shubha Mudgal in playing the Tanpura (2527339532).jpg|Indian tanpura resembles a sitar but has no frets == Mathematics and music ==

Strings are mathematical The lute is tied to the mathematics related to pitches. Unlike the harp, in which a string produces a single note, a lute string produces more than one note. Placing a finger on a string divides the string into measurable parts. Measuring those parts leads to mathematical ratios, useful in placing frets on the neck of the lute. An instrument such as the setar uses moveable frets to hit whole tones, half tones and quarter tones. It isn't known when frets were first used. Some ancient images discovered in the Middle East from before 1000 BC appear to show frets. These are rare and most images do not show frets on the early lutes. A rare example from about the 3rd century AD was discovered in 1907 in the Niya ruins in Xinjiang, China, a broken lute's neck with two gut frets intact. The neck and pegbox of the lute are similar to the lute painted on the wall in the Dingjiazha Tomb No. 5 (384–441 AD He concluded that what makes a mode "feel intrinsic is centuries of usage". Written as a ratio 2:1. which covers western tuning based on perfect 5ths and octaves. However, as modern scholars have looked at cuneiform texts, it is clear that the Greeks were not the first; recorded thinking in Mesopotamia about the mathematical ratios of strings predates the Greek thinking by at least 1500 years. Furthermore, a form of written music came out of that era, called the Hurrian songs, currently the oldest known written music, and is based on modes of music, recorded in cuneiform string ratios. Once the Persian and Arab thinkers from the Umayyad and Abbasid periods (7th to 13th centuries AD) had translations of Greek manuscripts, they began to study music as a science as part of "mathematical arts". Some Muslim musicians came to have access to more than one mathematically created scale, such as the Persian scale, the Arab scale and the Pythagorean scale. Thinkers and polymaths of Central Asia and Arabia :See: Golden Age of Islam The mixing cultures of Central Asia and Arabia produced several thinkers who wrote about music, including something about the lute in their works, including Al-Kindi (c. 801 – c. 873), Ziryab (789–857), Al-Farabi (c. 872 – c. 950), Avicenna (c. 980 – 1037), and Safi al-Din al-Urmawi (1216–1294). They wrote in Arabic, what had become the useful lingua-Franca of their time, and took part in Muslim society and culture. They weren't solely working in the Middle East; Islam was spread wide and some of the thinkers were from Central Asia. The Arabs had a musical scale, described by al-Farabi, in use by some through the 13th century AD. That tanbar scale, which divided the string into "40 equal parts" may have been a leftover from Babylon and Assyria. Al-Andalus, where he settled would become a center of musical instrument development for Europe. Al-Kindi was a polymath who wrote as many as 15 music-related treatises. He was among the first to apply Greek musical theory to Central Asian-Arabian short lutes. He gave instruction for both 10 frets and 12, telling where to place the tied (and moveable) gut-string frets on the neck. His way of tuning allowed a "12-fret 'ud tuning — which results ... 'double-octave' scale", with 22 notes in each octave. == Short-necked lutes ==

Although the oldest iconographic evidence concerning lutes deals with long lutes in Mesopotamia and Egypt, some long-necked lutes are shorter than others. Comparatively, the Greek and Byzantine pandura is shorter than the tanbur, even though both are long lutes. Shorter lutes exist among the long-necked lutes today, including the tanburica, cura and komuz. A short necked lute does not necessarily a small lute, as a guitar or pipa can be a large instrument. Guitars have a sound box as long as the neck. Some members of the rubab family with their long sound-boxes fit into the group of short-necked lutes. The line of short-necked lutes developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in Central Asia, places like Bactria and Gandhara. There a short, almond-shaped lute surfaced, carried east and west by Sogdiana merchants, become the Chinese pipa and Middle Eastern oud. Curt Sachs talked about the depictions of Gandharan lutes in art, where they are presented in a mix of "Northwest Indian art" under "a strong Greek influence". The short-necked lutes in these Gandhara artworks were "the venerable ancestor of the Islamic, the Sino-Japanese and the European lute families". Southern India too has early images of lutes, including 2nd-3rd century AD artwork at the Amaravati Stupa, where a large bodied, short-necked lute is carved into the relief sculpture. Another South India artwork showing a lute is found in the 450-490 AD painting, Padmapani Bodhisattva in the Ajanta Caves. Much of short lute development happened in the Central Asian area between India, China and Persia. Early short lutes were carved out of a single block of wood (monoxle), not built up in a box or bowl-like modern lutes. An example is the barbat which has been called ancestral to both skin-topped instruments like the gambus as well as to larger wood-topped instruments such as the oud. Names were reused or used across multiple instruments over the millennia; the rabab group is an example of that. The family included short lute-shaped instruments, to larger lutes with multiple chambers (some covered with wood, some with skin), to long-necked lutes that retained the multiple sound chambers and skin over the bowl. Some rababs were plucked, some bowed. File:Lute, 20th dynasty.jpg|alt=Lute, 20th dynasty|Statuette of a lute found in Egypt, attributed to the 20th dynasty (1189–1077 BC). No short lute tradition remained there by the 1st century AD. File:Gandhara lute, 2nd-4th century A.D.jpg|Musician playing for a dance, Gandhara, 2nd-4th century AD. File:Clevelandart 1980.15.jpg|Pakistan. Lute in Gandhara, probably Butkara in Swat, Kushan period (1st century-320) File:Gandhara Lute, Pakistan, Swat Valley, Gandhara region, 4th-5th century.jpg|Pakistan. Gandhara lute, Swat Valley, 4th-5th century. File:Lute in Life scenes of Buddha-2nd century CE, Amravati.jpg|India. Lute in life scenes of Buddha-2nd century AD, Amaravati Stupa, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh. This lute may have been developed into the veena. File:Indian chordophone 2nd-1st century B.C., Chandraketugarh.jpg|India, Chandraketugarh, 2nd-1st century BC Veena or possibly tanbura or sitar. == Central Asia, the crossroads of civilizations ==

:See: History of Central Asia It has been argued that Central Asia, a crossroads of multiple civilizations, the Middle East, Europe, China and India, could itself constitute a center of world civilization. It was described by the Greek geographer, Strabo, as "a land of 1000 cities". The peoples there could be loosely called Iranians, the historic tribes, not only citizens of the modern country. Over a period of centuries Central Asia was conquered by people from different cultures including the Greeks, Kushans, various Turkic tribes, Persians (themselves an Iranian tribe), Arabs and Mongols. The result was a blending of the cultures, and Central Asia grew prosperous in spite of the invasions. When the Arabs conquered Central Asia, they were conquering a culture that specialized in taking things, evaluating them for their potential value and improving on them. Their habit of evaluating applied to products to sell and to ideas. Central Asia was pluralistic and diverse and had some of the biggest cities on the planet, with books being "numerous and widespread", and a high rate of literacy, in which even women could read and write. The culture of literacy and evaluation continued after the Arabs burned the Central Asian libraries (an attempt to do away with competing ideas). Arabic became a lingua-franca, joining Central Asia with the wider Muslim academic world. Having access to Greek philosophy, including Plato and Aristotle long before the European Renaissance, Central Asian polymaths debated the Greek ideas and engaged in science and philosophy. They created climate of intellectual development which helped to bring about the European Renaissance. Among the products manufactured and exported to China were "lutes, harps, transverse flutes, both plucked and bowed stringed instruments, and even Central Asian dances." One of the peoples, the Sogdians were successful merchants for centuries and traveled to Europe, China and India. They took their music and dances with them, and the Sogdian Whirl, became popular in China. Another group from Central Asia was the people of Kucha, whose music and dances were popular in the Imperial Court, and which have survived in the Japanese Imperial Court into the modern era. Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted in Kusana sculptures from the 1st century AD. The pear-shaped pipa may have been introduced during the Han dynasty and was referred to as Han pipa. However, depictions of the pear-shaped pipas in China only appeared after the Han dynasty during the Jin dynasty in the late 4th to early 5th century. A small pipa was found in murals of tombs in Liaoning (遼寧) province in northeastern China. The date of these tombs is about late Eastern Han (東漢) or Wei (魏) period (220–265 AD). However, the pear-shaped pipa was not brought to China from Dunhuang (敦煌, now in northwestern China) until the Northern Wei period (386–524 AD) when ancient China traded with the western countries through the Silk Road (絲綢之路). Evidence was shown on the Dunhuang Caves frescoes that the frescoes contain a large number of pipa, and they date to the 4th to 5th centuries. The pipa acquired a number of Chinese symbolisms during the Han dynasty – the instrument length of three feet five inches represents the three realms (heaven, earth, and man) and the five elements, while the four strings represent the four seasons. Depictions of the pear-shaped pipas appeared in abundance from the Northern and Southern dynasties (420 to 589) onwards, and pipas from this time to the Tang dynasty were given various names, such as Hu pipa (胡琵琶), bent-neck pipa (曲項琵琶, quxiang pipa), some of these terms, however, may refer to the same pipa. Apart from the four-stringed pipa, other pear-shaped instruments introduced include the five-stringed, straight-necked, wuxian pipa (五弦琵琶, also known as Kuchean pipa (龜茲琵琶)), a six-stringed version, as well as the two-stringed hulei (忽雷). From the 3rd century onwards, through the Sui and Tang dynasty, the pear-shaped pipas became increasingly popular in China. By the Song dynasty the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the four-stringed pear-shaped instrument. Ruan and yueqin Another type of lute in China is the yueqin, a round-bodied instrument with flat top and back. According to tradition, the instrument was invented in China during the 3rd to 5th centuries AD Jin dynasty. The ruan, another Chinese instrument, is the ancestor of the yueqin. It had 13 frets and a round sound box. It was believed that it was the instrument which the Eastern Jin (東晉) musician Ruan Xian (阮咸) loved to play. Although the ruan was never as popular as the pipa, the ruan was divided into several smaller, better-known instruments within recent centuries, such as yueqin ("moon" lute, 月琴) and qinqin (Qin [dynasty] lute, 秦琴) . The short-necked yueqin, with no sound holes, is now used primarily as accompaniment for Beijing opera . The long-necked qinqin is a member of both Cantonese (廣東) and Chaozhou (潮州) ensembles. File:Cave of the Statues, back room mural.jpg|Kizil Cave 77, Cave of the Statues, back room, back wall, fresco over reclining Parinirvana Buddha. File:Kizil 118.jpg|Kizil Cave 118, circa 395-465 Gallery: Asian plucked lutes, long and short-necked Musical instruments came into China from Central Asia, such as the pipa, or may have been invented locally such as the Qin-Pipa or sanxian. China became a source of instruments for (or shares instruments in common with) other cultures, including Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Three ways to categorized these are: • short-necked pipas (such as the pipa, liuqin, bipa, and Tỳ bà) • short and long-necked moon lutes (such as the yueqin, ruan, gekkin, đàn tứ, đàn đáy, zhongruan, qinqin, đàn sến, đàn nguyệt) • long-necked lutes (such as the sanxian, tianqin, shamisen, đàn tam, and đàn tính). ] File:China (2482258684) (2).jpg|China, pipa, 2008. File:Biwa (1).jpg|Japan, biwa File:Liuqin.jpg|China, liuqin, smaller than pipa File:Bipa (Korean musical instrument).jpg|Korea, bipa File:Tỳ bà.jpg|Vietnam, đàn tỳ bà File:Lai-Afong, Female Musicians and Singers of Foo-Chow.jpg|China, (left to right) sanxian, pipa, two huqin type fiddles, c. 1907, Fuzhou. File:MUSICIANS 2.jpg|China, huqin type fiddle (left) and a yueqin (moon lute) or ruan, c. 1874. File:Woman Playing a Moon Zither.jpg|Japan, gekkin, 1886. File:Đàn tứ.jpg|Vietnam, đàn tứ, tứ meaning "four" for 4 strings. Also called đàn đoản (đoản meaning "short", referring to the instrument's neck). Related to Chinese yueqin, although 4 individual strings makes it closer to the ruan. File:Blind girl sing for a living in Jiufeng.jpg|China, southern yueqin or possibly a zhongruan (中阮, lit. "medium ruan"), 1960. Southern yueqins had long necks, unlike the northern. This instrument lacks the large soundholes that are a trait of the ruan. These are being revived in Taiwan. File:Man playing a đàn đáy.jpg|Vietnam đàn đáy. Possibly related to Chapei dong veng as both are heptatonic. Also shares characteristic with some Indonesian and Malaysian boat lutes: has an open back. File:Qinqinplayer.jpg|China, qinqin (秦琴) or plum blossom qin (梅花琴) File:Đàn Sến.jpg|Vietnam, đàn sến. Vietnamese version of qinqin File:Flickr - dalbera - Huong Thanh Trio, (musée Guimet, Paris) (4).jpg|Vietnam đàn nguyệt or đàn sến File:Chinese orchestra 1 5499690323 c0495e85e5 o.jpg|Larger ruans in an orchestra File:Dalian Liaoning China Ruan-Player-in-Dalian-Labour-Park-01.jpg|China, ruan-family instrument, either a bass daruan (大阮) or contrabass diyinruan (低音阮) File:Tapete-Sanxian.JPG|China, sanxian, 1780. File:ShamisenBuskerPittStreetSydney.JPG|Japanese style shamisen, 2006 played by a man in Australia. Related to sanxian File:Dan tam (three-stringed lute) - Vietnam Museum of Ethnology - Hanoi, Vietnam - DSC02536.JPG|Đàn tam, tam means three (for three strings). Related to sanxian. File:Thai tinh tau.png|Vietnam, đàn tính, or tianqin (天琴). Gourd lute. A musical instrument of Zhuang people came to some ethnic groups in Northern mountainous region in Vietnam File:Vatch music teacher 02.jpg|Thailand sueng File:Pinaŭo.jpg|Thailand and Laos, phin == Entering the Middle East, Northern Africa and Europe, the barbat and oud ==

Bactria and Gandhara became part of the Sasanian Empire (224–651), the last empire of the Persians. Under the Sasanians, a short almond shaped lute from Bactria came to be called the barbat or barbud, which was developed into the later Islamic world's oud or ud. The lute was brought from Al-Hira in Persia to Mecca by Nadr ibn al-Harith, probably prior to 602 AD and was adopted by the Quraish, a mercantile Arab tribe. He taught the instrument and the song (ghina, Arabic: غِنَاء) that accompanied it to his people, where the instrument and song "were adopted by singing girls". Sa'ib Khathir (died 683 AD), who brought the lute to Medina and Ibn Suraij in Mecca, said to have been the first to sing Arab songs on a lute "built in the Persian style" in 684 AD. When the Umayyads conquered Hispania in 711 and created Andalusia, they brought their ud or quitra along, into a country that had already known a lute tradition under the Romans, the pandura. During the 8th and 9th centuries, many musicians and artists from across the Islamic world flocked to Iberia. Among them was Abu l-Hasan 'Ali Ibn Nafi' (789–857), a prominent musician who had trained under Ishaq al-Mawsili (d. 850) in Baghdad and was exiled to Andalusia before 833 AD. He taught and has been credited with adding a fifth string to his oud By the 11th century, Muslim sections of Spain, or Al-Andalus, had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually to Provence, influencing French troubadours and trouvères and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. While Europe developed the lute, the oud remained a central part of Arab music, and broader Ottoman music as well, undergoing a range of transformations. Beside the introduction of the lute to Spain by the Moors, another important point of transfer of the lute from Arabian to European culture was Sicily, where it was brought either by Byzantine or later by Muslim musicians. There were singer-lutenists at the court in Palermo following the Norman conquest of the island from the Muslims, and the lute is depicted extensively in the ceiling paintings in the Palermo's royal Cappella Palatina, dedicated by the Norman King Roger II of Sicily in 1140. By the 14th century, lutes had disseminated throughout Italy and, probably because of the cultural influence of the Hohenstaufen kings and emperor, based in Palermo, the lute had also made significant inroads into the German-speaking lands. Although the major entry of the short lute was in western Europe, leading to a variety of lute styles, the short lute entered Europe in the East as well; as early as the 6th century, the Bulgars brought the short-necked variety of the instrument called Komuz to the Balkans. Additionally, the Byzantine Empire bordered on both Europe and Persia. The Central Asian lute, now middle Eastern, can be seen in Byzantine artwork from the 9th and 10th centuries. File:Shahrud.jpg|Ottoman Empire,1582. Shahrud, illustrated in the Surname-i Hümayun File:Oud, V & A London, ivory casket, Spain, 11th c.jpg|Oud, Spain, circa 1000-1025, Al-Andalus File:Egitto, cairo, placca decorativa in avorio, XI sec - Louvre - OA6266.jpg|Oud, 11th century, Egypt. File:Arqueta de Leyre (Museo de Navarra) cropped.jpg|Circa 1004-1005 A.D., Caliphate of Cordoba. Oud player and two other musicians carved into the Arqueta de Leyre (Museo de Navarra) File:Luster bowl, Fatimid, 11th cent.; Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo (2).jpg|11th century, Cairo. Woman playing the oud. Fatimid dynasty. File:MIK010.jpg|986-1015 A.D., Egypt. Woman playing the oud. Fatima's dynasty, 11th century. State Museums of Berlin, Museum of Islamic Art. Muslim and European instruments, blended tradition Fusion, instruments and music Instruments from approximately the 12th and 13th centuries in Spain and Sicily, areas conquered by Muslims and then European Christians. Instrument identities are educated guesses, even by experts, as none of these were labeled and historical descriptions of different types are vague. Places where cultures interact are fertile sources of new ideas, where experimentation creates new instruments, the same process that blends different types of music to create new music by fusion. A similar process happened in Central Asia, over centuries of repeated trade by different cultures and conquests by different tribes. Even after the Muslims were conquered in Spain or driven out, the process of experimentation continued, leading to a number of European instruments, including the guitar. A similar process occurred in Italy. Both Spain and Italy experimented with the viol or vihuela which led to bowed viols, violas vielles, and guitars. Other experiments led to the citole and cittern or Portuguese guitar, the gittern and vandola (mandore, mandola) which also led to the guitar, but also to the mandolin family. Spanish instruments that survived in Spanish colonies include the tiple. Portuguese experiments led to the Portuguese guitar, and other instruments seen today in places that Portuguese ships landed, including the cavaquinho and ukulele. File:European and Islamic musicians in 13th century playing stringed instruments.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musicians playing lute-family instruments. These have been called guitarra latina, guitarra morisca and tambura File:Guitar latina morisca.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, European musicians playing lute family instruments, possibly (left) citoles or guitarra latina and (right) guitarra morisca File:Vihuela de arco en las Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, European musicians playing viola de arco Two European lutes with oud soundholes.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Europeans holding lutes with W sound holes (a Muslim instrument feature) and the drilled dots (found on the Gambus and on Eastern European lutes into the early 20th century AD. File:Capellapalatinamusician.jpg|Palermo, Sicily, c. 1140 AD, oud from the Capella Palatina. File:Cantigas Santa Maria.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, European musicians playing (left) viola de arco and (right) citoles or plucked fiddles or guitarra latina File:Cantigas de Santa María, Codex of the musicians, B-I-2 162R lute rebab.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, large instrument has been called barbat, oud and lute. Smaller instrument is a type of rubab or rebab. File:Cantiga rabé morisco.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Andalusian or Magreb rebab File:Cantigas de Santa Maria (fragment).jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, Right Image:Vielle or viola de arco and citole or guitarra latina. Left image Vielle File:Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, page Bl-2 193V cropped.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, unknown fiddles File:Vihuela de arco y vihuela de péñola en las Cantigas.jpg|Al Andalus, Cantigas de Santa Maria, fiddle and plucked fiddle. File:Vielles and Citole, Manuscript T (El Escorial, Biblioteca del Real Monasterio, MS. T. I. 1), fol. 5r, detail.jpg|two vielles and a citole File:Cappella Palatina-ceiling-ISL15015.jpg|Sicily, c. 1140 AD. Lute family instrument or rubab. Not clear whether wood or leather top; both rubab and lute style soundholes. File:Guitarra morisca (Chitarrino Arabo).jpg|Sicily, 12th century image from the Cefalù Cathedral. Skin topped lute, possibly guitarra morisca or rubab File:Moorish women playing chess, European woman playing lute.jpg|León and Galicia, c. 1283. European image of Muslim Spain, showing a European woman, playing lute or oud for Moorish women. == Indo-Persian-Chinese-Mongolian culture ==

In areas around the Himalayas, variations of the rubab developed, part of Indo-Persian culture. From India, north through Pakistan, Nepal, into Persian/Turk areas of Central Asia, a group of barbed lutes and double-chested, skin-topped lutes developed. Today these include both plucked and bowed instruments, the sarod, rubab, sarinda, rebab, tungana. The instruments had a connection to the steppes horse cultures, that conquered from China to Europe in waves of invaders. Images have been found from Mongolian peoples in northern China, to the Turkic and Persian peoples in Northern India, Central Asia and Iran. Like the barbat and oud, these instruments went both east and west. They can be found in Nepal, Tibet, Southeast Asia and China. The instruments also traveled through Arabia (and on boats from there to Southeast Asia), across Northern Africa to the Iberian peninsula. Chinese sanxian It has been suggested that the sanxian, a form of spike lute, may have its origin in the Middle East, and older forms of spike lute were also found in ancient Egypt. Some thought that the instrument may have been re-introduced into China together with other instruments such as huqin by the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), however, an image of a sanxian-like instrument was found in a stone sculpture dating from the Southern Song period (1217–79). The first record of the name "sanxian" may be found in a Ming dynasty text. File:SanXian.JPG|A sanxian Gambus and rabâb, skin tops plucked and bowed, rebab, rubab rabâb, robab In the late 8th century A.D. r-bab (rabāb) was used in Arabic for a plucked boat-shaped lute. The name would also be used for bowed spike lutes by the 900s A.D., mentioned by Al Farabi. The Medieval European Rebec, Croatian Lijerica, Cretan Cretan lyra, Bulgarian Gadulka and Russian Gudok, the Gusle used in Serbia, Romania, Albania and Bulgaria, the Eastern Mediterranean Kemenche and Persian Kamancheh, the Kazakh Kobyz, Bangladeshi Ektara are variations. Gallery: skin topped lutes and rubabs These can blur the line between long-necked instruments and short necked. The soundbox is, in some cases, so long that it effectively adds to the instrument's scale-length, like a long neck. Gambus or qanbus File:Qanbuz.JPG|Yemen or Indonesia. Gambus or qanbūs File:Syrian qanbus nyc met.jpg|Syria, 1899. Qanbūs. Short-necked rabab with double sound chamber File:'By @ibneAzhar'-BaltitFort-Hunza-GB-Pakistan- (99).JPG|Pakistan. Rubab with upper sound chamber expose File:Robab.jpg|Iran. Robab, upper sound chamber covered with wood, top has frets File:Ustad Ghulam Hussein.JPG|Afghanistan. Rubab, top has frets File:Aashish Khan.jpg|India. Sarod, has no frets Barbed lutes, long-necked with double chamber or chamber extending into neck File:Nereus Playing Lute, 1st-3rd Cent. AD.jpg|1st-3rd century A.D. Nereus or possibly Triton playing a double chamber lute. File:Musician with rabab, photo by Maurice Pezard from the book Ceramique Archaique de L'Islam, page 138, cropped.jpg|10th century A.D., Iraq. Rubab that blends instrument types. Body becomes a hollowed neck; the neck is extended with an inserted stick (making it a spike lute or tang lute). File:Rabab ca. 1885 Indian (north), Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|India (Northern). Rabab c. 1885, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Was called rudra veena when collected. File:Sursanga 19th century by Ali Akbar Khan, Metropolitan Museum of Art.png|Sursingar or sursanga, 19th century by Ali Akbar Khan. Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Rahmat Khan.jpg|Sursingar player File:Indian village musicians.jpg|Tambura; this one is very similar in shape to the bowed Kamaica and Seni rebab File:Un iranien joue au Tar.JPG|Iran. Tar, double sound chambers with a skin top File:Iranian or Persian youth playing tar or rubab.jpg|Iran, rubab or tar, (possibly showing wooden upper top, skin lower top), c. late 16th century AD File:Sgra-Snyan,14th–16th century,Tibetan.jpg|Sgra-Snyan, 14th–16th centuries, Tibetan. Two sound chambers File:RubabPamiri9strings.jpg|Pamiri rubab, longer necked type of rubab, sound holes up neck show it is hollow File:Luth dranyen (musée d'ethnographie, Neuchâtel, Suisse) (28873179047).jpg|Bhutan. Dranyen. File:Muhammad Jaffar 1590.jpg|Iranian style rubab c. 1590, longer neck, painted by Muhammad Jaffar File:Rubab late 12th or early 13th century AD.jpg|Iranian or Persian rubab, late-12th to early 13th century AD, Iran File:Bangladesh dotara.JPG|Bangladesh, Bengal, and Assam. Dotara File:Prakash Gandharva playing the arbajo आरबाजो.png|Nepal, arbajo File:Nepalese instrument.jpg|Nepali tungana File:Dranyen.png|Dramyin or dranyen, 2005, Tibet File:Musical instruments Rubabs and Dutars in Tajikistan.JPG|Bottom Tajik rubab (or rawap), middle tar, top dutar. The sound chamber on the rawap does not extend beyond the round bowl. Gallery: spike fiddles, bowed rabâbs, kamanchas, liras File:Sarinda1.gif|India, sarinda. Double chambered like Afghan rubab. File:Anchor Shaped Sarinda.jpg|Eastern India. Tribal fiddle instruments called "Dhodro Banam" used by Santal people. File:Nepali sarangi.jpg|Nepal. Nepali sarangi File:Sakar Khan-Amarrass-Artist.jpg|India. Kamsica, close relative to the plucked Seni rebab and sursingar File:The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis - Sarangi.jpg|India, sarangi File:National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka - Rabab Andalusiyyah - Morocco - Made around 1991.jpg|Morocco, 1991. Maghreb rebab or Rabab Andalusiyyah (Andalusian Rabab), brought to North Africa from The Iberian Peninsula after Reconquista File:Rabab saharaoui.jpg|rabâb saharaoui, 1879 File:Joseph Scherer - Blind lyra-player - 1844.jpg|kemenche, 1844 File:Liraris.jpg|kemenche, Greece, late 19th or early 20th century File:Cappella Palatina-ceiling-Female musician.jpg|Rebab, Sicily, c. 1140 AD. Painting from the Cappella Palatina. Same sound holes found on Al Andalusia lutes File:Russ instr gudok.gif|gudok, Russia File:Lira calabrese.JPG|Calabrian lira File:Azerbaijani player in chaganeh.jpg|Azerbaijan, 3010. Chagane File:Uyghur satar or sataer (ساتار).jpg|Uyghur man playing Satar, Xinjiang, China File:Pastimes of Central Asians. Musicians. A Man Practicing the Kamancha, a Long-necked Stringed Instrument WDL10824.png|kamancha, a Long-necked Stringed Instrument, c. 1865–1872, Turkestan File:Man with folklor.jpg|kamancheh, 2016, Egypt File:2 Kamānches, Persia, ca. 1880.jpg|kamancheh, c. 1880s, Iran File:Kokyu LACMA M.80.219.60.jpg|kokyū, Japan, 19th century File:Mongolian Musician.jpg|morin khuur, Mongolia 2005 File:20170309 090540 Ravanahatha player Jaisalmer anagoria.jpg|ravanahatha, 2017, India File:Família d'instruments huqin.jpg|huqin-family instruments, China File:Vatch music teacher 01.jpg|Thailand, coconut shell saw u ซออู้, the lowest pitch instrument in its family, which also includes the hardwood or ivory saw duang (ซอด้วง) and three-stringed Saw sam sai (ซอสามสาย). File:Khmer instruments 04.jpg|Cambodia, Tro (ទ្រ). This family of instruments includes coconut-shell tro u (ទ្រអ៊ូ), small hardwood tro sau toch (ទ្រសោតូច), bigger hardwood tro sau thom (ទ្រសោធំ), and the tro che. Also a three-stringed tro Khmer (ទ្រខ្មែរ). File:Emile gsell cambodian woman.jpg|Cambodia, c. 1880, tro Khmer (ទ្រខ្មែរ) File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een rebabspeler TMnr 60052115.jpg|Indonesia, Rebab. Some of the Indonesian rebabs have the same shaped-coconut that the Cambodian and Thai instruments use. Others have ordinary round coconuts. File:Haegeum player.jpg|Korea, haegeum 2 strings File:DPRK-Sohaegeum.jpg|North Korea, sohaegeum, 4 strings India and Southeast Asia Among modern lutes in India are the sitar, tanpura and Saraswati veena. The sitar is currently believed to have developed from tanburs during Muslim rule in the north, after 1192 AD The Saraswati veena was developed in about 1600-1634 during the reign of Raghunatha Nayak. It was developed from the "barbed rabab" of the Moghul courts, with the tuning, frets, upper resonator, string and running coming from the native stick-zither instruments such as the kinnari vina. In the 1st–4th centuries AD., lutes traveled with Buddhists in Northern India along the Silk Road and can be seen in sculptures in Gandhara, where Buddhism mixed with Hellenism. In the south of India, images at the Ajanta Caves (450–490 A.D.) and Pawaya (4th–5th century A.D.) also show the instruments in years approaching the medieval period. Sculptures by Buddhist and Hindu cultures at Champa (Cham culture), Ku Bua, Thailand (Dvaravati culture), and Borobudur, show Indian cultural influence and images of lutes dating to the 7th through the 9th century A.D. Lutes in Hindu and Buddhist artwork :See: Ancient maritime history See: Veena Southeast Asia consists of countries connected to the continent, such as Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, Laos, as well as island nations such as Indonesia and Malaysia and New Guinea. During the first millennium AD, Southeast Asia has had connections to India, Africa, China, Melanesia and the Arab Peninsula. Musical instruments can be grouped by geographic location, ethnicity or religion; all of these have had an effect on what instruments are used in a community. Speaking of Southeast Asia, Curt Sachs said its history began "in the first centuries A.D. when it became an immense, though loosely knit, Indian colony. Hinduism and Buddhism spread throughout what are now Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, all the way to China." Austronesians navigated an area from Easter Island to Madagascar, setting up the Maritime Silk Road though Southeast Asia. The Austronesians, who included the Javanese and Sumatrans, passed on the catamaran and outrigger boat to South India and Sri Lanka about 1000-600 BC and reached China c. 220-200 BC. The waterways became international as ships from the Islands sailed all the way to India and Madagascar, and Indian ships sailed the other direction. Southeast Asia formed ties to India as early as the 4th century BC. About a millennium later, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms were formed in Southeast Asia. These included Champa (192–1832 AD), the Khmer Empire (802–1431 AD), Dvaravati (6th-11th century AD), and the Shailendra dynasty (8th-11th century AD, ruling the Mataram kingdom and Srivijaya). These cultures produced carved stone reliefs, which reveal musical instruments used in the cultures, including lutes. Lutes been seen in artwork at ruins in Thailand's Ku Bua (c. 650-700 AD), Vietnam's Mỹ Sơn (c. 850s AD), and Malaysia's Borobudur (9th century). The smaller oval bodied lutes resemble lutes from India in the Gupta period in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, and also the biwa family. File:Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of the Bodhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg|India, in Ajanta Caves, Cave 1, c. 450-490 AD. Kinnara with "kacchapī veena" (Sanskrit for "tortise veena") or panchangi veena (5-stringed veena). Part of the painting Bodhisattva Padmapani. File:Large-5d6e38b2567c4.jpg|Hindu. 650-700 AD, Thailand, Ku Bua, (Dvaravati culture). Three musicians in right are playing (from center) a 5-stringed lute, cymbals, a tube zither or bar zither with gourd resonator. File:Cham lute, from the Mỹ Sơn pedestal E1 in the Museum of Cham Sculpture, Da Nang, Vietnam.jpg|Hindu. 8th century AD, Champa. Cham lute, from the Mỹ Sơn pedestal E1 in the Museum of Cham Sculpture, Da Nang, Vietnam. File:Borobudur lute and harp, 9th century CE.jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. 9th century AD, Borobudur (Shailendra dynasty). 3-stringed lute and harp. In this time, the Chinese pipa was still being played horizontally. Lute player may be using plectrum. File:Borobudur lute, stick zither and flute, 1880 photo.jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. 9th century AD, Borobudur (Shailendra dynasty). 3-stringed lute (second from left). It is a small part of a larger image illustrating the Lalitavistara Sūtra, Bodhisattva in Tusita Heaven. File:Gandavyuha - Level 3 Balustrade, Borobudur - 115 West Wall (8601288269).jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. 9th century AD, Borobudur, Level 3, 115 West Wall File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reliëf op de Borobudur TMnr 10015651.jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. 9th century AD, Borobudur, from the now buried "hidden base" section of the monument. Stick zither (left) and a lute. File:Borobudur 9th century lutenist.jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. 9th century AD, Borobudur (second gallery, main wall). Girl in a dance position playing a lute. File:Brodobudur lute with frets, from second gallery, main wall.jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. Brodobudur, second gallery, main wall. Lute with frets File:Lute from Borobudur, the buried "hidden base" section, cropped from photo by Kassian Céphas, 1890-1891.jpg|Hindu, Buddhist. Borobudur (buried section), 1890–1891. Lute resembling modern sapeh. Boat lutes in the island regions Modern boat lutes in the island regions of Southeast Asia include the Sapeh from Borneo, the Sumatran Hasapi and Philippine Kutiyapi. The history of these has not been fully documented, but musicologists look to India for origins. Hans Brandeis, a researching musicologist working with the Philippine Kutiyapi lutes, considers the instrument could have traveled to the Philippines by way of Myanmar, Cambodia and Thailand. He pointed out similarities between the alligator zithers of those countries, such as the Chakhe or Mi gyaung and the boat lutes, including the way they are strung with a melody and drone string, movable frets and a plectrum tied to a finger to play. Another feature in common is the way the alligator zithers and boat lutes are made, carved out of a log from the back, leaving a wooden soundboard intact in the front. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Luit met twee snaren TMnr 2082-10.jpg|Pre-1951, Sumba, Indonesia. A jungga boat lute. File:Junga, from Sumba.jpg|Sumba. A junga, showing influence of Portuguese instruments on lute-making culture, now a guitar-family instrument. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met twee snaren TMnr 1802-5.jpg|1948, Borneo. Boat lute (not named when collected). File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met twee snaren TMnr 2241-10.jpg|Pre-1953, Toba Batak people. Riman boat lute. Appears to be carved from top with separate soundboard. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Korthalsluit met twee snaren TMnr 1579-1.jpg|Pre-1942, Southern Sulawesi. Ketjapi. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met twee snaren TMnr 1384-1.jpg|Pre-1940, Kenyah people, Indonesia. Ketjapi. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met twee snaren TMnr 5053-18.jpg|Pre-1986, Toba Batak people. Hasapi. File:Lute (kutyapi), Mindanao, wood, Honolulu Museum of Art.jpg|Maguindanao, Philippines. Kutiyapi decorated with ukkil motifs. Muslim-origin lutes in Malaysia and Indonesia After the fall of Borobudur, Indian influence declined. Following a new wave of immigrants from Yemen in the 18th century, the term gambus began being applied to an instrument resembling the oud with a wood soundboard, instead of the skin soundboard of the other gambus and the qanbus. == Lute from an African tradition ==

Africa today retains the largest variety of skin-topped pierced lutes, in which the neck is a stick that penetrates the body of the instrument. In some, the neck pokes out the bottom and strings are attached there. Others have the neck end within the instrument's body, edge of the neck's end poking up through the skin, securing the strings. These are not merely instruments brought in from outside and copied across generations, but include instruments that originate from local designs. Ultimately the banjo was one of these. File:Gnaouas d'Oran (Algérie) avec leur geumbri.JPG|Oran, Algeria, early 20th century. The geumbri is also an instrument of Morocco, used in Gnawa ceremonies. File:Chef de Toumanéa (Guinée).jpg|Haute Guinea, 1905. Instrument is about the same size as the kontigi, a one-string lute used by Muslims in West Africa. File:Hausa harpist.jpg|Niger and northern Nigeria. Hausa musician playing a gurmi. File:Garaya.jpg|Niger and northern Nigeria. Fulani musician playing a gourd bodied garaya. The Hausa also make the instrument, with a wood body. File:A Ghanaian musician playing kolog instrument.jpg|Ghana, 2023. Musician playing a kolog. File:Atongo Zimba is a Ghanaian musician.jpg|Atongo Zimba, Ghana, playing a kologo. Goje players from Northen Nigeria.jpg|Northern Nigeria, 2008. Hausa musicians playing bass lutes (probably babbar garaya or komo) and one playing the goge bowed lute. The Gbagyi call the instrument kaburu. The yenna and his Gombri 2.jpg|Tunisia, 2017. Musician playing large-bodied gombri. File:Lute with turtle-shell body, Democratic Republican of the Congo.jpg|Lute with turtle-shell body, Democratic Republican of the Congo File:Lute with turtle-shell body, Democratic Republican of the Congo, back.jpg|Lute with turtle-shell body, back, Democratic Republican of the Congo Horizonte 2013 0297 04.JPG|Madagascar, 2013. Musician playing a kabosy. File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met drie snaren TMnr 4728-1.jpg|Morocco, pre-1981, skin-topped lute, carved wooden bowl, Amazigh, Amazighen, Berber cultures. Called "Lothar". Labeled "Gimbrī" in Koptishe Lauten (Ricardo Eichmann, 1994, page 101) File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met 4 snaren TMnr A-11007.jpg|West Africa, pre-1887, skin-topped lute, calabash bowl, has sound holes File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met 4 snaren TMnr 3925-153.jpg|Mali, pre-1970, skin-topped lute, carved wooden bowl, Fellani, Foulah, Ful, Fulani, Fulbe, Peul, Toucouleur cultures, called "Hoddu" File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met 2 snaren TMnr 2212-5.jpg|Africa, pre-1953, skin-topped lute, carved wooden bowl File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Langhalsluit met 4 snaren TMnr 4185-1.jpg|Ramkie. Rhodesia-Zambia, skin topped lute or banjo, metal can for body, Kaonde culture File:Joueur d'ekonting à Bagaya.jpg|Senegal, akonting. Possibly related to banjo. File:Akonting cmdt.jpg|Gambia, akonting with pegs File:Taj Mahal MQ2007-j.jpg|United States. Banjo in the hands of Taj Mahal. File:Imzad (bowd spike lute, 20th century, Tuareg people, Ahaggar Region, Algeria) - MIM PHX (2022-04-06 02.20.56 by Terry Ballard).jpg|Algeria. Tuareg people. Imzad bowed lute. File:Azmari in a tejbeit.jpg|Lalibela, Ethiopia, 2005. An azmari (minstrel) plays a manenqo, bowed lute. File:Playing Zeze, a Musical Instrument.jpg| Tanzania, 2016. A line of musicians play the zeze, bowed with a stick. File:Endingidio.png|Uganda, 2017. Endingidi bowed lute. == European lutes ==

Lute :See Lute, History and Evolution The European lute and the modern Near-Eastern oud descend from a common ancestor via diverging evolutionary paths. The lute is used in a great variety of instrumental music from the Medieval to the late Baroque eras and was the most important instrument for secular music in the Renaissance. During the Baroque music era, the lute was used as one of the instruments which played the basso continuo accompaniment parts. It is also an accompanying instrument in vocal works. The lute player either improvises ("realizes") a chordal accompaniment based on the figured bass part, or plays a written-out accompaniment (both music notation and tabulature ("tab") are used for lute). As a small instrument, the lute produces a relatively quiet sound. Medieval lutes were 4- or 5-course instruments, plucked using a quill as a plectrum. There were several sizes, and by the end of the Renaissance, seven different sizes (up to the great octave bass) are documented. Song accompaniment was probably the lute's primary function in the Middle Ages, but very little music securely attributable to the lute survives from the era before 1500. Medieval and early-Renaissance song accompaniments were probably mostly improvised, hence the lack of written records. In the last few decades of the 15th century, to play Renaissance polyphony on a single instrument, lutenists gradually abandoned the quill in favor of plucking the instrument with the fingertips. The number of courses grew to six and beyond. The lute was the premier solo instrument of the 16th century, but continued to accompany singers as well. By the end of the Renaissance the number of courses had grown to ten, and during the Baroque era the number continued to grow until it reached 14 (and occasionally as many as 19). These instruments, with up to 26–35 strings, required innovations in the structure of the lute. At the end of the lute's evolution the archlute, theorbo and torban had long extensions attached to the main tuning head to provide a greater resonating length for the bass strings, and since human fingers are not long enough to stop strings across a neck wide enough to hold 14 courses, the bass strings were placed outside the fretboard, and were played open, i.e., without pressing them against the fingerboard with the left hand. Over the course of the Baroque era the lute was increasingly relegated to the continuo accompaniment, and was eventually superseded in that role by keyboard instruments. The lute almost fell out of use after 1800. Some sorts of lute were still used for some time in Germany, Sweden, Ukraine. Bowed fiddles, lyra, kamānģa rūmī, vièla, viola Spain had bowed instruments as early as the 10th and 11th centuries AD, when they were included in Spanish manuscripts, such as the Commentary on the Apocalypse Beatus of Liébana Emilianense Codex. The Byzantines had a bowed lute called a "kamānģa rūmī" in the east, also known as the Byzantine lira in "Greece, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia". In fact, unless a medieval document gives an indication that it meant a necked instrument, then it likely was referring to a lyre. It was also spelled cithara or kithara and was Latin for the Greek lyre. as we can see clearly beginning in manuscript illuminations from the 13th century. It was also called the guitarra in Spain, guiterne or guiterre in France, the chitarra in Italy and quintern in Germany. A popular instrument with court musicians, minstrels, and amateurs, the gittern is considered ancestral to the modern guitar and possibly to other instruments like the mandore and gallichon. and pitched in the treble range. It was considered a new instrument in French music books from the 1580s, but is descended from and very similar to the gittern. It is considered ancestral to the modern mandolin. Other earlier instruments include the medieval European citole and the Greek and Byzantine pandura. The history of modern mandolins, mandolas and guitars are all intertwined. Some instruments became fashionable widely, and others locally. Experts argue as to the differences; because many of the instruments are so similar but not identical, classifying them has proven difficult The Cantigas de Santa Maria shows 13th-century instruments similar to lutes, mandores, mandolas and guitars, being played by European and Islamic players. The instruments moved from Spain northward to France and eastward towards Italy by way of Provence. Like the earlier gittern, the mandore's back and neck were in earlier forms carved out of a block of wood. This "hollowed out construction" did still exist in the 16th century, according to James Tyler, but was becoming rare. Modern guitar shaped instruments were not seen until the Renaissance era where the body and size began to take a guitar-like shape. The earliest string instruments that related to the guitar and its structure were broadly known as the vihuelas within Spanish musical culture. Vihuelas were string instruments that were commonly seen in the 16th century during the Renaissance. Later, Spanish writers distinguished these instruments into two categories of vihuelas. The vihuela de arco was an instrument that mimicked the violin, and the vihuela de penola was played with a plectrum or by hand. When it was played by hand it was known as the vihuela de mano. Vihuela de mano shared extreme similarities with the Renaissance guitar as it used hand movement at the sound hole or sound chamber of the instrument to create music. By 1790 only six-course vihuela guitars (six unison-tuned pairs of strings) were being created and had become the main type and model of guitar used in Spain. Most of the older 5-course guitars were still in use but were also being modified to a six-coursed acoustical guitar. Fernando Ferandiere's book Arte de tocar la guitarra espanola por musica (Madrid, 1799) describes the standard Spanish guitar from his time as an instrument with seventeen frets and six courses with the first two 'gut' strings tuned in unison called the terceras and the tuning named to 'G' of the two strings. The acoustic guitar at this time began to take the shape familiar in the modern acoustic guitar. The coursed pairs of strings eventually became less common in favor of single strings. Finally, c. 1850, the form and structure of the modern guitar is credited to Spanish guitar maker Antonio Torres Jurado, who increased the size of the guitar body, altered its proportions, and invented the breakthrough fan-braced pattern. Bracing, which refers to the internal pattern of wood reinforcements used to secure the guitar's top and back and prevent the instrument from collapsing under tension, is an important factor in how the guitar sounds. Torres' design greatly improved the volume, tone, and projection of the instrument, and it has remained essentially unchanged since. Citole and cittern The citole was a string musical instrument, closely associated with the medieval fiddles (viol, vielle, gigue) and commonly used in Europe from 1200–1350. The earliest representations of the instrument are in sculpture in Spain and Italy, with Spain having the most. Another link to Spain is the similarity to plucked fiddles in the Spanish Beatus Apocalypse manuscripts, such as the Ryland Beatus. Examples of these plucked fiddles trace back to Central Asian art, such as the Airtam Frieze. This artwork is too distant in time to be considered a relative, though it is very similar to many citoles. The one surviving citole has a hollowed neck, a feature of the rubabs and Coptic lute. Although it was largely out of use by the late 14th century, the Italians "re-introduced it in modified form" in the 16th century as the cetra (cittern in English), and it was possibly ancestral to the Spanish guitar as well. Three possible descendant instrument are the English guitar, Waldzither, Portuguese guitar and the Corsican Cetera, all types of cittern. The cittern or cithren (Fr. cistre, It. cetra, Ger. zitter, zither, Sp. cistro, cedra, cítola)[1] is a stringed instrument dating from the Renaissance. Modern scholars debate its exact history, but it is generally accepted that it is descended from the Medieval citole (or cytole). It looks much like the modern-day flat-back mandolin and the modern Irish bouzouki. Its flat-back design was simpler and cheaper to construct than the lute. It was also easier to play, smaller, less delicate and more portable. Played by all classes, the cittern was a premier instrument of casual music-making much as is the guitar today. Viola, 4-course guitars, late 15th century By the late 15th century, small guitar shaped instruments were appearing in Spain and Italy. The instruments were smaller than lutes, which separates them from the later vihuela, which they resembled. As these took over from the gittern, they began to be called guitars in the 16th century. The use of these newer guitars overlapped with the older gittern, which may have seen occasional use into the 18th century. Known by modern musicologists as the "Renaissance four-course guitar", the instrument was contemporary with the lute and the vihuela. The instruments were called violas by the French and Italians. Vihuela was used as a word in Spain starting in the 13th century. The vihuela faded away, along with the complex polyphonic music that was its repertoire, in the late 16th century. The vihuela's descendants that are still played are the violas campaniças of Portugal. Much of the vihuela's place, role, and function was taken up by the subsequent Baroque guitar (also sometimes referred to as vihuela or bigüela). 5-course guitars were used in Italy by the late 1400s. It was first an instrument of aristocrats, inspired by the actors, and later it became an amateur instrument. The earliest attestation of a five-stringed guitar comes from the mid-sixteenth-century Spanish book Declaracion de Instrumentos Musicales by Juan Bermudo, published in 1555. The first treatise published for the Baroque guitar was Guitarra Española de cinco ordenes (The Five-course Spanish Guitar), c. 1590, by Juan Carlos Amat. The baroque guitar in contemporary ensembles took on the role of a basso continuo instrument and players would be expected to improvise a chordal accompaniment. Several scholars have assumed that the guitar was used together with another basso continuo instrument playing the bass line. However, there are good reasons to suppose that the guitar was used as an independent instrument for accompaniment in many situations. Intimately tied to the development of the Baroque guitar is the alfabeto system of notation. 6-string guitar In the second half of the 18th century, the doubled strings of the 5-course guitar began to become single strings, and by the end of the century, the 5-string guitar was out of fashion, in favor of the 6-string guitar. Examples of the new instrument with its additional low E string were seen in Spain (by 1780), Italy, France and England. By the second half of the 19th century, luthier Antonio de Torres Jurado (1817–1892) had created the modern classical guitar. Ignacio Fleta (1897–1977) and Hermann Hauser Sr. (1882–1952) have also been linked to creating fine early versions of the instrument in the 20th century.{{cite book == Spanish and Portuguese descendant lutes in former colonies ==

Both Spain and Portugal took their instruments with them overseas. Spanish instruments were related to the vihuela. The Portuguese cavaquinho also was the forerunner of a family of instruments. Even after the Muslims were conquered in Spain or driven out, the process of experimentation continued, leading to a number of European instruments, including the guitar. A similar process occurred in Italy. Both Spain and Italy experimented with the viol or vihuela which led to bowed viols, violas vielles, and guitars. Other experiments led to the citole and cittern or Portuguese guitar, the gittern and vandola (mandore, mandola) which also led to the guitar, but also to the mandolin family. Spanish instruments that survived in Spanish colonies include the tiple. Portuguese Portuguese violas :See: Violas portuguesas (Portuguese Wikipedia) The Portuguese violas are a collection of instruments shaped like a classical guitar but smaller. Although the body is shaped like an "8", these instruments are not descended from the guitar. While the modern guitar was introduced in Portugal in the 18th century from France and has 6 simple strings, the Portuguese violas are older, were developed from the Iberian vihuela, are smaller and have 5 courses of double strings. Due to the widespread use in Portugal of the word "viola" to designate the guitar, it is common to call these violas "violas of 10 strings". However, there are no records of being called "10-string guitars". Some of them are on the verge of extinction, but others continue to enjoy great popularity, despite being restricted to the interpretation of popular music. From Portugal, these instruments were taken to Brazil. Violas native to Portugal include the Viola Braguesa, Viola Amarantina, Viola Toeira, Wire Viola, Viola Campaniça, and Viola Beiroa. Brazilian violas In Brazil, the viola became the viola caipira, while the classical guitar was called the violão. The viola caipira is an instrument of the Brazilian rural music while the violão an instrument of urban life. Brazilian violas include the • viola caipira, common in the states of Goiás, Paraná, São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro • Angrense or coastal viola, Common on the coast of the states of Paraná, São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and associated with caiçara culture. • Viola branca (white viola), specific to the region of Iguape and Cananéia, on the coast of the state of São Paulo. • Viola de Queluz, Specific the ancient city of Queluz. • Viola machete, also called machete, machim, machinho, machetinho or mochinho, and possibly originally from Madeira Island. • Viola de cocho, common in the states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul. • Viola de buriti, common in the state of Tocantins, from the use of buriti wood . Created in the 1940s in the community of Mumbuca do Jalapão. • Viola dinâmica (or viola nordestina), Common in the Northeastern Brazilian states and very associated with record players, who often use the Paraguaçu tuning . It has acoustic amplifiers in the form of aluminum cones Cavaquinho Portuguese experiments led to the Portuguese guitar, and other instruments seen today in places that Portuguese ships landed. There are several forms of cavaquinho used in different regions and for different styles of music. Separate varieties are named for Portugal, Braga (braguinha), Minho (minhoto), Lisbon, Madeira, Brazil, and Cape Verde; other forms are the braguinha, cavacolele, cavaco, machete, and ukulele. Ukulele The ukulele originated in the 1880s, based on several small guitar-like instruments of Portuguese origin, the machete, the cavaquinho, the timple, and the rajão, which were introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by Portuguese immigrants from Madeira and Cape Verde. Three immigrants in particular, Madeiran cabinet makers Manuel Nunes, José do Espírito Santo, and Augusto Dias, are generally credited as the first ukulele makers. There were also special melodic Bordonuas that were used during the 1920s and 1930s as accompaniment to melody instead of the bass role. These were oddly tuned like a Tiple. This configuration is no longer used on the island. They are also related to the Spanish renaissance Vihuela, brought to the Island by conquering Spanish. Cuatro The cuatro is a family of Latin American string instruments played in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela and other Latin American countries. The instrument's 15th-century predecessors were the Spanish vihuela and the Portuguese cavaquinho. Although some have viola-like shapes, most cuatros resemble a small to mid-sized classical guitar. In Puerto Rico and Venezuela, the cuatro is an ensemble instrument for secular and religious music, and is played at parties and traditional gatherings. Bandurria, bandolón and bandola The bandurria was the Spanish version of the mandore, and the modern instrument is thus related to the mandolin family. The similarity of the instruments affects the history of other instruments from South and Central America; a variety of instruments exist called bandolas. At least one, the bandola andina colombiana, is related to the bandurria. The others are not clear at this time, and possibilities include mandolin family instruments such as the mandola or the cittern family. These were all present in Spain and Portugal during the colonization era. The bandolas have multiple courses of strings, like the bandurrias, mandolins and citterns. Juan Ruiz first mentioned the term "mandurria" in the 14th century in his Libro De Buen Amor. After that, Juan Bermudo gave the description of the bandurria in his "Comiença el libro llamado declaraciõ de instrumentos" as a three-string instrument in 1555, but he also mentioned other types with four or even five strings. It had become a flat-backed instrument by the 18th century, with five double courses of strings, tuned in fourths. The original bandurrias of the Medieval period had three strings. During the Renaissance they gained a fourth string. During the Baroque period the bandurria had 10 strings (5 pairs). There are also many different varieties of bandurria in South America, especially Peru and Bolivia. They have four courses, unlike the traditional Spanish six courses. The four courses are double, triple or quadruple, and the tuning is guitar-like, rather than the fourths tuning used on the Spanish type. In Lima, Peru, harp and bandurria duos were common in the early 20th century. Nowadays people there still play bandurria accompanying with the popular vals peruano, or vals criollo. The Philippine harp bandurria is a 14-string bandurria used in many Philippine folkloric songs, with 16 frets and a shorter neck than the 12-string bandurria. Guitarra de golpe A Guitarra de golpe is a type of 5-string guitar designed in Mexico. The perked once had a distinct traditional shape that is designed to look like a stylised owl with wooden pegs, but nowadays this is sometimes replaced with a guitar or vihuela style headstock with machine heads. For a while during the 20th century, the Guitarra De Golpe fell into disuse in traditional Mariachi groups, and was replaced by the Classical guitar. It has now however been revived. Huapanguera The huapanguera, guitarra quinta huapanguera or guitarra huapanguera is a Mexican guitar-like instrument that usually forms part of a conjunto huasteco ensemble, along with the jarana huasteca guitar and violin. Because of its large body and deeper structure, the huapanguera is able provide a much deeper sound compared to a regular acoustic guitar. Here it takes on the role of the bass instrument using a rhythmical strumming technique. Its physical construction features a large resonating body with a short neck. Jarana huasteca and huapanguera. The jarana huasteca, jarana de son huasteco or jaranita is a string instrument. It is most often called simply jarana. It is a guitar-like chordophone with 5 strings. It is smaller than the guitarra huapanguera and usually forms part of the trío huasteco ensemble, along with the quinta huapanguera and violin, taking on the role of the rhythmical accompaniment to the ensemble. Bajo sexto The bajo quinto is probably a descendant of the Italian baroque chitarra battente. The manufacture of bajo quinto and sexto reached a peak in quality and popularity in the 19th century in central and southern Mexico, in the states of Guerrero, Michoacán, Morelos, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Tlaxcala. Native American creations Concheras In Mexico, the Concheras lute tradition may date to the Spanish Conquest in the 16th century. Native Americans imitated the European instruments, making their own. Sounds boxes were made from armadillo shells, from calabash gourds, and from strips of wood like the lute. The dancers who use the Concheras (also known as conchas) call them "Mecahuehuetl" (from Nahuatl: Meca(tl) = chord + Huehue(tl)= old one "drum"). The tradition is rooted in the Otomi, Jonaz, Chichimeca, and Caxcan tribes. As Christians tried to suppress the native's religion, the instruments became a tool to preserve music. Early Concheros dancers were able to incorporate the precolumbian dance and drum rhythms into the music made on the guitars and lutes. A traditional conchero can tell which step should be carried out by how the melody is being strummed on the conchas. Modern instruments include the mandolina conchera, vihuela conchera, and guitarra conchera. The vihuela and guitar types are tuned using reentrant tuning, each course having two strings an octave apart. Charango The charango was developed in what is now Bolivia and Peru. Adapted from European styles such as vihuela and round-backed mandolin (or earlier types such as bandurria or mandore). Native Americans have been credited with using armadillo hide to create a round back, which is made of wood in modern times. The instrument is widespread throughout the Andean regions of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, northern Chile and northwestern Argentina, where it is a popular musical instrument that exists in many variant forms. Two sizes are common: The smallest is the Walaycho (also hualaycho, maulincho, or kalampiador) with a scale typically around 30 cm long (up to about 56 cm with mechanical tuners). It has ten strings, which may be of metal, nylon, or nylon fishing line, arranged in five courses of two strings each. The Charangón (also charangone) is larger, in effect a tenor charango. About 75 cm long by 22 cm wide with a 42–51 cm scale. A flat-backed version has been developed, the hatun charango or "grand charango", an extended-range charango developed in Peru in the modern era. It has either seven or eight strings, all set in single string courses except for the third course, which is double-strung. Gallery, Latin America, Indonesia, Philippines, Hawaii File:LucielFotoGilArduz.jpg|Bolivia. Luciel Izumi playing modern charango File:Armadillo backed Bolivian Charango 05.jpg|Bolivia. Charango, rounded back made from an armadillo File:Charango hinten.JPG|Modern charango with wood back File:Presentación de Timples 2000 en Puerto del Rosario.jpg|Canary Islands, Fuerteventura. timple File:Guitarronero001.jpg|Chilean guitarron File:Pedro Nel Martínez P.jpg|Colombia. Colombian tiple File:Bandola 3.jpg|Columbia. Bandola andina File:Kahi Ata Ratu performing live at CME-Fest, cropped.jpg|Sumba, Indonesia. Kahi Ata Ratu performing on the Junga. Originally a boat lute, this type was modeled after a Portuguese instrument. File:Charango (Mexico) and Metal Scraper (Cuba) - Met Museum of Art, New York, NY.jpg|Merida, Yucatán, Mexico, 19th century. Six-stringed charanga or jamanita. File:Mejorana2.jpg|Panama. Mejorana File:TipleDoliente.jpg|Puerto Rican tiple doliente File:Phoenix-Musical Instrument Museum-Puerto Rico Exhibit-Tiple Requinto--1800s.jpg|Puerto Rico, 19th century, tiple requinto File:Bandola llanera.jpg|Venezuela. Bandol llanera File:Antonio Facure - Bandola oriental.jpg|Venezuela. Bandola oriental == Notes ==