Among the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy. Every instrumental group (or section) has a
principal who is generally responsible for leading the group and playing orchestral solos. The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, with the second violins playing in lower registers than the first violins, playing an
accompaniment part, or harmonizing the melody played by the first violins. The principal first violin is called the
concertmaster (or orchestra "leader" in the U.K.) and is not only considered the leader of the string section, but the second-in-command of the entire orchestra, behind only the conductor. The concertmaster leads the pre-concert
tuning and handles musical aspects of orchestra management, such as determining the bowings for the violins or the entire string section. The concertmaster usually sits to the conductor's left, closest to the audience. There is also a principal second violin, a principal viola, a principal cello, and a principal bass. The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low brass section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. While the oboe often provides the tuning note for the orchestra (due to a 300-year-old convention), there is generally no designated principal of the woodwind section (though in woodwind ensembles, the flute is often the presumptive leader). Instead, each principal confers with the others as equals in the case of musical differences of opinion. Most sections also have an assistant principal (or co-principal or associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an assistant concertmaster, who often plays a
tutti part in addition to replacing the principal in their absence. A section string player plays in
unison with the rest of the section, except in the case of divided (
divisi) parts, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" seated players. Where a solo part is called for in a string section, the section leader invariably plays that part. The section leader (or principal) of a string section is also responsible for determining the bowings, often based on the bowings set out by the concertmaster. In some cases, the principal of a string section may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing their instrument (e.g., the double-bass section). Principals of a string section will also lead entrances for their section, typically by lifting the bow before the entrance, to ensure the section plays together. Tutti wind and brass players generally play a unique but non-solo part. Section percussionists play parts assigned to them by the principal percussionist. In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a conductor, although early orchestras did not have one, giving this role to the
concertmaster or the
harpsichordist playing the
continuo. Some modern orchestras also do
without conductors, particularly smaller orchestras and those specializing in historically accurate (so-called "period") performances of
baroque and earlier music. The most frequently performed repertoire for a
symphony orchestra is Western
classical music or opera. However, orchestras are used sometimes in
popular music (e.g., to accompany a rock or pop band in a concert), extensively in
film music, and increasingly often in
television and
video game music. Orchestras are also used in the
symphonic metal genre. The term "orchestra" can also be applied to a jazz ensemble, for example in the performance of
big-band music.
Selection and appointment of members In the 2000s, all tenured members of a professional orchestra normally
audition for positions in the ensemble. Performers typically play one or more solo pieces of the auditionee's choice, such as a movement of a concerto, a solo
Bach movement, and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature that are advertised in the audition poster (so the auditionees can prepare). The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging parts and solos from the orchestral literature. Orchestral auditions are typically held in front of a panel that includes the conductor, the
concertmaster, the principal player of the section for which the auditionee is applying, and possibly other principal players. The most promising candidates from the first round of auditions are invited to return for a second or third round of auditions, which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates. Performers may be asked to
sight read orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is a
test week, in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the conductor and principal players to see if the individual can function well in an actual rehearsal and performance setting. There are a range of different employment arrangements. The most sought-after positions are permanent,
tenured positions in the orchestra. Orchestras also hire musicians on contracts, ranging in length from a single concert to a full season or more. Contract performers may be hired for individual concerts when the orchestra is doing an exceptionally large late-Romantic era orchestral work, or to substitute for a permanent member who is sick. A professional musician who is hired to perform for a single concert is sometimes called a "sub". Some contract musicians may be hired to replace permanent members for the period that the permanent member is on
parental leave or
disability leave.
History of gender in ensembles Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of men. The first
women members hired in professional orchestras have been
harpists. The
Vienna Philharmonic, for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than comparable orchestras (the other orchestras ranked among the world's top five by
Gramophone in 2008). The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the
Berlin Philharmonic. In February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute,
Dieter Flury, told
Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity () that this organism currently has". In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of
maternity leave would be a problem. In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the
National Organization for Women and the
International Alliance for Women in Music. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist." As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova, became one of the orchestra's
concertmasters in 2008, the first woman to hold that position in that orchestra. In 2012, women made up 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president
Clemens Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely screened
blind auditions. In 2013, an article in
Mother Jones stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership — women outnumber men in the
New York Philharmonic's violin section — and several renowned ensembles, including the
National Symphony Orchestra, the
Detroit Symphony, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "... are still predominantly male." A 2014 BBC article stated that the "... introduction of 'blind' auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift." ==Amateur ensembles==