Regarding
political freedom in the former Soviet republics,
Freedom House's 2021 report listed the following: •
Estonia,
Latvia and
Lithuania as "free" countries. •
Armenia,
Georgia,
Moldova and
Ukraine were listed as "partly free". •
Azerbaijan,
Belarus,
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Russia,
Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan were listed as "not free". Similarly, the
Press Freedom Index published by
Reporters Without Borders in 2025 recorded the following as regards
press freedom: •
Estonia – "Good situation" •
Armenia,
Latvia,
Lithuania,
Moldova – "Satisfactory situation" •
Ukraine – "Problematic situation" •
Georgia – "Difficult situation" •
Azerbaijan,
Belarus,
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Russia,
Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan – "Very serious situation" It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as
Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019, and
Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents
Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and
Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan).
Askar Akayev of
Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as
President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the
Kyrgyz revolution of 2005.
Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a
personality cult around himself. His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, has maintained a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov. The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States.
Heydar Aliyev, after constructing an
extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son,
Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound. The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the
2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.
Post-Soviet conflicts Economic, political, national, military and social problems have all been factors in
separatism in the post-Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open. Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:
Current self-declared states • , which is
de facto independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990, due to its majority Russian-speaking population fearing union with
Romania. A ceasefire between Transnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992, enforced by the
presence of Russian forces in Transnistria. • , which is
de facto independent from Georgia. The region declared its intent to seek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatism became powerful after the election of Georgian President
Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and a referendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The
2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's independence. • , which is
de facto independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out when Georgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most of the Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the region declared independence in 1999. The
2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence.
Former self-declared states •
Gagauz Republic, declared itself the "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" within Moldova on 12 November 1989, and the Gagauz Republic, separate from Moldova but still within the
Soviet Union, on 19 August 1990; reintegrated into Moldova as
an autonomous region through a law passed on 23 December 1994 which entered into force on 14 January 1995. • , declared itself to be a sovereign state after a
referendum on 21 March 1992. Negotiations with Russia led to the signing of a treaty in 1994 which ended Tatarstan's de facto independence, but reserved significant autonomy for the Tatarstan government. In 2002 a new constitution was enacted for Tatarstan which removed the prior constitution's declaration that Tatarstan was a sovereign state. • . The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainian authorities since late February 2014, when Russian special forces, some disguised as "armed self-defence forces"
occupied the peninsula and seized the local parliament. In March 2014, a
popular referendum in favor of
accession to Russia was held in Crimea and
Sevastopol, although Ukraine and most of the international community refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declared independence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory. • , where
Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russia in 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia first
invaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensions have continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regions such as
Dagestan,
Ingushetia and
North Ossetia–Alania. The break away region was disestablished in 2000 after the
Second Chechen War with
Chechnya rejoining the Russian Federation. • and , states which declared independence from
Ukraine in 2014. The two breakaway states were recognized by
Russia on 21 February 2022, followed by
North Korea and
Syria, and they were subsequently
annexed by Russia on 4 October of that year after a
controversial referendum that were recognized as sham referendums. • , which declared independence from the Soviet Union. Ethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into
a war which lasted until a ceasefire in 1994. Sporadic attempts at negotiating a final peace and sporadic bursts of violence have continued up until September 2023 when
Azerbaijan launched another military offensive. The government of Artsakh agreed to disarm and enter talks with Azerbaijan, prompting a
flight of ethnic Armenians from the area. The president of Artsakh also signed a decree calling for the republic to dissolve itself by 1 January 2024. •
Kurdish Republic of Lachin, proclaimed in 1992 during
First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Territory later taken over by
Artsakh forces. •
Talysh-Mughan, declared autonomy within Azerbaijan, that lasted from June to August 1993.
Civil wars Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region: • The
Georgian Civil War between the forces of
Zviad Gamsakhurdia and
Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the
Commonwealth of Independent States. • The
Tajikistani Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.
Colour revolutions Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "
colour revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition. • The
Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the resignation of
Eduard Shevardnadze • The
Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power
Viktor Yushchenko and toppling the pro-Russian leader
Viktor Yanukovych • The
Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of
Askar Akayev • The
Velvet Revolution in Armenia, leading to the resignation of
Serzh Sargsyan Russian population in post-Soviet states There is a significant
Russophone population in most of the post-Soviet states, whose political position as an
ethnic minority varies from country to country. While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept
Russian as an official language, the language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi-official status in all CIS member states, because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic states, the Russian language is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its departure from the CIS in 2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in the Georgian language.
Religion While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued to survive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: "Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp." The
Central Asian states (
Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan) plus
Azerbaijan in the
Southern Caucasus are
Muslim, except for their dwindling
Russian and other European minorities. The Baltic countries are historically
Western Christian (
Protestant and
Roman Catholic), which adds another layer of pro-Western orientation to those countries, although the majority of what has been the traditionally Protestant population there (in Estonia and northern Latvia) is now relatively irreligious. The dominant religion in the other former Soviet countries (
Belarus,
Georgia,
Moldova,
Russia and
Ukraine) is
Eastern Orthodox Christianity, while
Armenia is
Apostolic Christian.
LGBTQ rights LGBT people may encounter difficulties not shared by non-LGBT residents. In Transnistria homosexuality is illegal. In some other regions, such as Russia and Ukraine, homosexual actions are legal, but there is still discrimination and bias towards the gay community. In June 2023, Estonia became the first former Soviet state to legalize same-sex marriage and joint adoption for gay couples.
Environment The Soviet Union inherited environmental problems from the pre-Revolutionary era that it blamed on the failings and evils of capitalism. Some environmental strides were made, such as the banning of lead-based paint and leaded gasoline in the 20th century. The Northern countries of Central Europe, including Poland, East Germany and Czechoslovakia formed what is referred to as the "black triangle" due to their heavy use of
brown coal for energy. Many
republics of the Soviet Union experienced
soil degradation due to collective farming There was a push away from coal and towards cleaner forms of energy in the 1980s, Industrial activity drastically decreased, which reduced air pollution even as the economy took an upturn. Environmental clean-up efforts by post-Soviet regimes included institutional changes through the creation of or reformation of environmental agencies, and legislative changes through the introduction of new environmental regulations and their enforcement. Rather, some republics had state and local institutions for environmental oversight where citizens could voice concerns, but open criticism of the state was prohibited. engaged in preservationist and recreational outdoor activities. However, environmental problems arose in Russia under the Soviets because industrialization was favored over environmentalism, and there was little discussion on how to properly use resources and they were depreciated. Ukraine heavily increased industrial and agricultural production in the Soviet period, which had negative effects on the environment, as did the 1986
Chernobyl disaster. Central Asia has an arid climate with hot summers and cold winters. For this reason, they were reliant on Russian oil, and did not have the capacity to acquire fuel from other producers, which had led to frequent fuel shortages. Under the USSR, forest and other natural resources were state-owned and centrally managed. The State determined how resources would be used and excluded the public from influencing forest policy. The transition to a post-Soviet political and economic system led to privatization of forests and a market economy. Today, Lithuania's forests are managed democratically and sustainably so as to preserve biodiversity and forest resources. ==Post-Soviet nostalgia==